{"id":863,"date":"2025-09-02T18:14:46","date_gmt":"2025-09-02T18:14:46","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/medialiteracy360.org\/?page_id=863"},"modified":"2025-09-06T11:27:33","modified_gmt":"2025-09-06T11:27:33","slug":"cml-course-ch-7","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/medialiteracy360.org\/?page_id=863","title":{"rendered":"CML Course Ch. 7"},"content":{"rendered":"

Chapter 7<\/b><\/a><\/h3>\n

Positive News and Negative News<\/b><\/p>\n

\u201cYou must not under any pretense allow your mind to dwell on any thought that is not positive, constructive, optimistic, kind\u201d – Emmet Fox<\/i><\/p>\n

Chapter 7 <\/b>: Positive News and Negative News<\/b><\/p>\n

Hartung and Stone (1980) describe a positive news story as a report that elicits satisfaction or pleasure among the majority of the local paper’s readers. The tone of the story is typically optimistic and upbeat. Harcup and O’Neill (2001) define good news as stories that have a positive connotation, such as rescues and cures, while bad news is defined as stories that carry a negative tone, such as conflict or tragedy.<\/p>\n

Gieber (1955) characterises negative news as reports of social conflicts and disorganisation (pp. 311-312). He listed political and economic tensions, crime, accidents, and disasters as examples of negative news. argues that his definitions were rooted in traditional practices used by many telegraph and news editors. (Gieber, 1955)<\/p>\n

It is unrealistic to believe mindsets will converge nor will it ever because human nature is to prevail over others using a variety of rhetorics, attuned to logos, ethos, pathos and bathos to attract the attention of desired type of audience.<\/p>\n

Our minds’ obsession with negative news tends to ignore good news. Consumers have criticised the American news media for publishing too much bad news for more than half a century (Gieber, 1955; Shoemaker & Reese, 1996) but a City Reporter in Russia lost two-thirds of the website’s readership as a result of reporting exclusively good news for a day in 2014 (Zaria Gorvett, 12.05. 2021). The science fiction writer Arthur C Clarke had pre-warned that the newspapers of Utopia would be terribly dull. So no news is good news would probably be the right mantra.<\/p>\n

Negative news has an impact on journalism despite criticism that it is overly emphasised. Shoemaker (1996) argues that humans have a biological inclination to seek out potential threats in their environment, and this instinct contributes to the appeal of negative news.\u00a0 Conflict and drama are also common elements of storytelling (Epstein, 1973), with journalists conventionally covering conflict rather than consensus (Eliasoph, 1988; Gitlin, 1980). Market forces might also contribute to the prevalence of negative news, as publishers might see it as a profitable venture. Nevertheless, some individuals feel that the media focuses too heavily on negativity, indicating a potential market for positive news. (Karen McIntyre, 2016)<\/p>\n

Negative news is the horse that wins journalists’ races. Journalists recognise that \u201cbad\u201d news is inherently newsworthy (Shoemaker & Reese, 1996). Social media are not only a battleground of wits but also a minefield of propaganda, a digital Armageddon which creates an existential crisis for all.<\/p>\n

The analogue world was no different from the current cyberworld, which is a constantly contested habitat for about 5.07 billion net users, who at best, reason, argue, compete, cooperate, discuss,\u00a0 learn, teach and express their thoughts and at worst, harm, kill, rape, damage, rob, ruin, loot and cause all sorts of atrocities. [NEXT-<\/strong>The Health Hazards of Negative News<\/b>]<\/p>\n

The Health Hazards of Negative News<\/b><\/p>\n

A research study reveals that constant media exposure during the 24\/7 news cycle can have negative effects on one’s mental and physical health. The study found that the constant bombardment of news, especially negative news, can increase perceptions of threat and activate the “fight or flight” response. This response, which is a natural response to danger, can lead to subsequent physical and mental health problems if triggered too frequently. It is important to note that too much exposure to traumatic events through the media can have detrimental effects and it is important to be mindful of one’s media consumption. Citizens should challenge the content for accuracy, thoroughness and reliability which are sourced from trusted media. They must critically question the content and conduct analysis, comparison and evaluation.<\/p>\n

While news has the potential to affect people negatively, it is important to recognise that the impact is not universal and depends on a complex interplay of factors. Why do people persistently keep consuming more news when it is evident from studies that news is a stressor? There are two causes: one is explained by neuroscience that ‘negativity bias’ that drives our attention to negative news is not an option but an inborn tendency because we are genetically hardwired for the purpose of survival, supported by the Darwinism Theory. Thus we pay relatively more attention to disturbing or negative events happening around us. Now there\u2019s emerging evidence that the emotional fallout triggered by negative news cannot be ruled out which also affects our physical health – increasing our chances of having a heart attack or developing health problems years later. (Zaria Gorvett,12.03.2020). Several scientific and professionals have demonstrated practical examples of the incidence of ‘negativity bias.’<\/p>\n

Loretta Breuning, a former professor explains \u201cthis can make it hard for us to ignore the negatives and seek out the positives around us.\u201d she says. \u201cOur brain is predisposed to go negative, and the news we consume reflects this.\u201d She further adds that \u201ca lot of what you see today is gossip elevated to a sophisticated level.\u201d (Markham Heid, 31.01.2018)<\/p>\n

Giving sustained attention to negative news induces you into that mode of thinking due to our brain creating a neuronal circuit in the Neuroplasticity, is the brain’s ability to change and adapt throughout life in response to experiences, environmental stimuli, and learning. This ability is essential for various cognitive and behavioural functions, including learning and memory, motor skill development, and recovery from injury or disease. Focusing on specific goals creates new and robust neural pathways between our neurons, facilitating our ability to achieve success. It enables us to approach challenges with a growth mindset to develop new skills\u00a0 which helps us replace old habits with new ones. A growth mindset refuses to accept that\u00a0 you have a finite amount of ability or intelligence. (Patrice Voss et al. 2017)<\/p>\n

News can warp our perception of reality and influence our thoughts and behaviours in ways we may not even realise. One example is the way news coverage can influence our perception of risk. Studies have shown that the way news stories are framed can manipulate our perception of how risky a country or situation is. This can have life or death consequences, as people may underestimate their own risk of certain illnesses or diseases, potentially missing early warning signs. The public perception of a disease’s prevalence suggests that news coverage shapes public perception, which in turn influences the allocation of government resources. There is also evidence that the news can affect our mental health, causing stress, anxiety, and PTSD, especially following a crisis. The impact of news is a psychological mystery, as most news doesn’t actually affect us directly, if at all.<\/p>\n

Exposure to negative news affects both the body and the mind. It creates feelings of fear, anxiety, and depression. Research has shown that exposure to negative news is associated with increased symptoms of anxiety and depression, as well as a heightened sense of fear and vulnerability. (Yu-ting Zhang et al., 2021)<\/p>\n

Surprisingly a few studies have looked into how this all adds up, but in 2018 \u2013 well before we were confined to our homes with a major global crisis unravelling around us \u2013 the average American spent around eleven hours every day looking at screens, where information about global events is hard to escape. Many of us even take our primary news-delivery devices,such as mobile phones to bed.<\/p>\n

A study by the American Psychological Association (APA) found that people who repeatedly watched coverage of the September 11 terrorist attacks had higher levels of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms than those who didn’t. (Garfin, D. R., Silver, R. C., & Holman, E. A. 2020). This emotional contagion theory states that emotion could be transferred from one person to another through automatic mimicry, such as facial expression and postures.<\/p>\n

Moreover, emotional contagion could also occur online, in the absence of typical in-person interaction clues, especially for negative emotions. Negative posts were followed by more negative responses than positive posts on X. Happiness can be spread from person to person through social interactions.<\/p>\n

Media effect theory explains how media use brings a change to people\u2019s cognition, emotion, and behaviour. (de Hoog N, Verboon P.,2019) [NEXT- Is the news making us unhappy?<\/b>]<\/p>\n

Is the news making us unhappy?<\/b> The influence of daily news exposure on emotional states.<\/p>\n

Another study reveals that negative news may: (1) trigger feelings of sadness, anger, or anxiety, can have a significant impact on both mindset, behaviour, decision and health, (2) lead to a negative spiral of thoughts and emotions, (3) make it difficult to see things in a positive light, (4)\u00a0 increase feelings of hopelessness and helplessness, (5) lead to the deterioration of mental health conditions such as depression and anxiety, (6) have an impact on cognitive function, such as memory, attention and decision making as well as on physical health, (7) affect sleep, energy levels and motivation, relationships and social interactions and unhealthy behaviours such as overeating, smoking, and substance abuse, which can further contribute to poor health. According to another study negative news leads to a sense of “compassion fatigue” where people might start to feel numb and desensitised to the suffering of others, which can affect their ability to empathise and help others. (Schlenger WE et al. 2002).<\/p>\n

Negative emotions triggered by exposure to negative news may unleash stress hormones such as cortisol and adrenaline, which can in turn increase the risk of developing chronic health conditions such as hypertension, heart disease, stroke and increased risk of sleep disturbance, which can in turn affect overall physical and mental health. The majority of media messages are constructed with commercial, political or other purposes. Therefore, the evaluation process in which individuals question media contents with respect to objectivity and reality is of vital importance for the media.<\/p>\n

In the new media order in which anyone can create one\u2019s own contents and share them because cost and scarcity of radio spectrum no longer apply as they did in the analogue days. Silverblatt (2001) suggests a contextual approach, one that emphasises issues of production and consumption in addition to content. One can expand this to an analysis of information control and cultural ideologies (Kavoori & Matthews, 2004, Lewis & Jhally, 1998). As Jhally notes, \u201cTo appreciate the significance of contemporary media, we need to know why messages are produced, under what constraints and conditions and by whom\u201d Lewis & Jhally, 1998)<\/p>\n

Another definitive but less recognised element of media literacy is to give the person greater control of exposures and the construction of meaning from the information ‘encountered in these exposures’ (Porter, 2004)\u00a0 R. McChesney \u2013 the problem we face with a hyper-commercial profit obsessed media system is that it does a lousy job of producing citizens in a democracy.<\/p>\n

News literacy is a news-oriented competence, aimed at promoting the critical news in news consumers and journalists that overlap the core skills of CML. However, it focuses not only on tracking, identifying and questioning content to distinguish from genuine to false ‘news’ but also to determine if news reporting and coverage is credible, trustworthy, objective and factual. It provides insights into the manipulative editorial skills. This empowers news consumers to become news savvy in order to make informed choices and decisions in order to uphold the ideals of a democracy.<\/p>\n

The Radio Television Digital News Association (RTDNA) states “News literacy is the acquisition of 21st century, critical-thinking skills for analysing and judging the reliability of news and information, differentiating among facts, opinions and assertions in the media we consume, create and distribute.” They suggest that it can be taught most effectively in cross-curricular, inquiry-based formats at all grade levels, and is considered a necessary component for contemporary society.<\/p>\n

The association also states that news literacy is a news-oriented competence, aimed at promoting CT in news consumers and journalists, which overlaps with the core skills of CML. However, it also focuses on identifying and questioning content to distinguish between genuine and false ‘news’, as well as determining the credibility, trustworthiness, objectivity, and factual accuracy of news reporting and coverage. Through this, it aims to empower news consumers to become more news-savvy, making informed choices and decisions in order to uphold the ideals of democracy.<\/p>\n

In summary, news literacy is a critical skill that is essential for informed decision making in today’s society, where access to information is readily available but not all information is reliable or trustworthy. By providing individuals with the tools to critically evaluate news and information, news literacy can help promote a more informed and engaged public, and ultimately strengthen the ideals of democracy. News Impact on Democracy [Next]<\/b><\/p>\n

News Impact on Democracy<\/b><\/p>\n

News has a unique role in democratic societies as it is expected to inform citizens to enable them to make sound democratic decisions. Therefore, it is important to interrogate news and its societal implications (Fleming 2014; Hobbs 2010b) News media\u00a0 education is designed to teach individuals how to apply core media\u00a0 skills (i.e., analysing and evaluating content) to news (Ashley et al. 2013; Maksl et al. 2015; Mihailidis 2014; Vraga & Tully 2015 & McIntyre, 2016).<\/p>\n

News is information about recent events or happenings, especially as reported by the news media. There are several criteria that are typically used to determine whether something is newsworthy, including:<\/p>\n

    \n
  1. Timeliness\/Proximity: News that is timely, meaning it is recent and relevant to current events, and proximity, meaning it is relevant to the local community or audience, are highly valued.<\/li>\n
  2. Impact: Stories that have a significant impact on a large number of people, or have far-reaching consequences, are often considered newsworthy.<\/li>\n
  3. Prominence: Stories about well-known individuals, organisations or institutions, or events involving these entities, are often considered newsworthy because of their prominence.<\/li>\n
  4. Oddity: Stories that are unusual, strange, or unexpected are often considered newsworthy because they are different from the norm and capture people’s attention.<\/li>\n
  5. Conflict: Stories that involve conflict, such as disputes, disagreements, or controversies, are often considered newsworthy because they are inherently interesting and generate strong emotions.<\/li>\n
  6. Currency\/Relevance: Stories that are relevant and important to current events or to the public’s overall interests are considered newsworthy. This includes stories that are timely and relevant to a specific audience or community (Source: “What Makes News? )<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

    Harcup and O\u2019Neill (2001) identified ten elements that journalists look for when assessing the viability of a story where relevance is\u00a0 common and celebrity coincides with prominence:<\/p>\n

      \n
    1. The power elite: stories concerning powerful individuals, organizations or institutions.<\/li>\n
    2. Celebrity: stories concerning people who are already famous.<\/li>\n
    3. Entertainment: stories concerning sex, showbusiness, human interest, animals, an unfolding drama, or offering opportunities for humorous treatment, entertaining photographs or witty headlines.<\/li>\n
    4. Surprise: stories with an element of the unexpected and\/or contrast.<\/li>\n
    5. Bad news: stories with negative overtones such as conflict or tragedy.<\/li>\n
    6. Good news: stories with positive overtones such as rescues and cures.<\/li>\n
    7. Magnitude: stories perceived as sufficiently significant either in the numbers of people involved or in potential impact.<\/li>\n
    8. Relevance: stories about issues, groups and nations perceived to be relevant to the audience.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

      Follow-ups: stories about subjects already in the news.<\/p>\n

      Media agenda: stories that set or fit the news organisation\u2019s own agenda.<\/p>\n

      Danish TV journalist, Schultz (2007) cites further four constructs which extend the traditional scope of news values that dominate:<\/p>\n

        \n
      1. Human Interest: Stories that evoke strong emotions or concern for the well-being of individuals, communities or society are considered newsworthy such as stories about people in difficult circumstances or those who have achieved something remarkable.<\/li>\n
      2. Unusualness: Stories that are unique, strange, or surprising are considered newsworthy\u00a0 including stories about events that are out of the ordinary, or about people who are exceptional in some way.<\/li>\n
      3. Consequence: Stories that have significant consequences for individuals, communities, or society are considered newsworthy including stories about events that have far-reaching impacts, or about decisions or actions that will have long-lasting effects.<\/li>\n
      4. Emotion: Stories that evoke strong emotions, for example sadness, happiness, anger, or fear are considered newsworthy stories about tragic events, acts of heroism, or events that elicit a strong emotional response from the public.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

        Schultz’s (2007) criteria stresses the importance of human interest, emotional impact, and the consequences of events in determining what is newsworthy. By considering these values, journalists and news organisations can provide a more nuanced and well-rounded view of current events, and engage audiences with stories that are not only relevant and timely, but also emotionally resonant and meaningful. It’s worth noting that these news values overlap or interact with each other in complex ways. (Schultz,2007)<\/p>\n

        These are just a few examples of the criteria that are commonly used to determine whether something is newsworthy. However, it should be noted that different news organisations may have their own criteria for determining what is considered news.<\/p>\n

        News values can be limited in its ability to fully explain the motivations behind journalistic news decisions. While examining news outputs may shed light on the treatment of news, the intentions of journalists must also be considered according to Staab (1990). Staab (1990) and Harcup and O’Neill (2001) argue that an exploration of news values can only provide a partial explanation of the decision-making behind journalism.<\/p>\n

        Donsbach (2004) asserts that news values are inherently subjective and cannot be objective criteria. Staab (1990) proposed a functional model that takes into account the intentions of journalists, while Hall (1973) suggested that news values are part of an ideologically constructed way of perceiving the world that favours powerful elites, a view echoed by Herman and Chomsky (1988) in their propaganda model and McChesney (2000).\u00a0 The ideological role of news selection and treatment may inform future research into potential ideological impacts. Despite limitations, it is still important to understand the criteria behind the selection of news, as it “goes to the heart of what is included, what is excluded, and why” (O’Neill and Harcup, 2009, 162). Westerhahl and Johansson (1994) also note that the selection process can be “more important than what ‘really happens'” in determining what becomes news. News values serve as a precept to aid rightful analysis and understanding of this significant aspect of journalism.<\/p>\n

        The study of news values by scholars has been approached differently. Some focus on the apparent newsworthiness of events or actors to determine why a story was selected, and others consider the impact of organisational, cultural, and economic factors. Galtung and Ruge (1965) hypothesise selection criteria while studying the reporting of foreign events in the Norwegian press, while Golding and Elliott (1979) and Harcup and O’Neill (2001) use their experience and analysis of news outputs. The key news values has been summarised by Harrison (2006), O’Neill and Harcup (2009), Caple and Bednarek (2013), and Harcup (2015), while ethnographic observations and interviews have been used by Schultz (2007) and Dick (2014) to understand the judgement made by journalists when selecting news.<\/p>\n

        Schultz (2007) based on her observations of Danish TV journalists identifies six news values: (a) timeliness, (b) relevance, (c) identification, (d) conflict, (e) sensation, and (f) exclusivity – dominate news selection whereas Schultz identifies three types of news values – undisputed, taken-for-granted and rarely articulated (doxic) and explicit news values but O’Neill (2012) suggests that there may be a hierarchy of news values with celebrity at the top.<\/p>\n

        Arbitrary factors such as luck, convenience, and serendipity can also play a role in news selection, as can journalistic routines, competition for exclusives, influence of proprietors and advertisers, external influence from public relations professionals and “spin doctors”, the belief systems of journalists, and the influence of peers within the workplace. The same newsworthiness model has been found to be applicable in different countries (Shoemaker and Cohen, 2006), with little difference between genders (Lavie and Lehman-Wilzig, 2003).<\/p>\n

        News values are seen as a reflection of organisational, sociological, and cultural norms combined with economic factors, rather than as a reflection of citizens’ information needs. Allern (2002) suggests that a set of commercial news values exists, with sensationalist stories most likely to be pursued, stories that are costly to pursue less likely to make it into the news, and well-prepared press releases and photo opportunities more likely to be taken up by resource-starved journalists.<\/p>\n

        Commercial pressures can result in the selection of news stories based on perceived appeal to target audiences rather than their newsworthiness or importance, particularly relevant for online news (Niblock and Machin, 2007; Stromback, Karlsson, and Hopmann, 2012). An analysis of news in the five largest newspapers in the Netherlands established that audience clicks affected news selection (Welbers et al. 2015), a conclusion supported by a study of over 300 editorial gatekeepers in the United States (Tien Vu 2014). (Harcup, Tony & Deirdre O\u2019Neill, 2017). [NEXT -Constructivist Learning Theory and Its Application]<\/b><\/p>\n

        Constructivist Learning Theory and Its Application<\/b><\/p>\n

        The constructivist learning theory provides a robust framework for this transformation. Constructivism posits that knowledge is actively constructed by individuals based on their experiences and interactions with the world. For journalists, this implies a dynamic approach to learning, characterised by the willingness to learn, unlearn, and relearn. Unlearning entrenched biases, relearning journalistic ethics, and acquiring new skills in the digital age are essential components of this journey.<\/p>\n

        For example, a journalist covering a politically charged issue must deconstruct their own biases, seeking diverse perspectives to provide balanced reporting. Similarly, citizen journalists, who often lack formal training, should focus on verifying information, understanding the socio-political context, and presenting nuanced narratives. Constructivism also encourages collaborative learning, where journalists engage with their peers, audiences, and experts to refine their understanding and reporting.<\/p>\n

        The Role of Positive Thought and Ethical Responsibility<\/b><\/p>\n

        Positive thought is a powerful antidote to the negativity that often pervades media. Journalists have a unique opportunity to shape public discourse by highlighting stories of resilience, innovation, and cooperation. Ethical responsibility compels journalists to prioritise the public good over personal gain or sensationalism. For example, during a pandemic, journalists should focus on disseminating accurate health information rather than fuelling panic.<\/p>\n

        Changing limited beliefs is another crucial aspect of this transformation. Journalists often operate within predefined narratives shaped by their upbringing, education, or professional environment. By challenging these narratives and embracing a growth mindset, journalists can produce more authentic and impactful content. For instance, a journalist reporting on gender issues could examine their own assumptions about gender roles, seeking to present a more inclusive perspective.<\/p>\n

        The Constructivist Journalist: A Vision for the Future<\/b><\/p>\n

        The constructivist journalist is a lifelong learner, guided by a commitment to truth, intellectual curiosity, and ethical responsibility. They understand that journalism is not merely about reporting facts but about shaping perceptions, fostering dialogue, and building a more informed society. This requires a deep understanding of the interplay between the mind, intellect, and media.<\/p>\n

        To achieve this vision, journalism training must incorporate a holistic approach, combining technical skills with cognitive and ethical development. Workshops on cognitive biases, seminars on epistemology, and collaborative projects can help journalists build the necessary skills and mindset. For citizen journalists, accessible online courses and mentorship programs can bridge the gap between enthusiasm and expertise.<\/p>\n

        Real-World Implications<\/b><\/p>\n

        Authentic journalism is vital for healthy governance, societal harmony, and the preservation of fundamental rights like freedom of expression. For instance, investigative journalism has exposed corruption, held powerful individuals accountable, and catalysed policy changes. Conversely, biased or unethical journalism has exacerbated divisions, undermined trust, and fuelled disinformation. By foregrounding the human element in media, we can mitigate these risks and harness the transformative potential of journalism.<\/p>\n

        A journalist who embodies these principles becomes a beacon of hope in an age of information overload and digital noise. Their work not only informs but also inspires, guiding societies toward truth, justice, and progress.<\/p>\n

        This comprehensive approach aims to empower journalists and media practitioners to reclaim their agency, elevate their craft, and contribute meaningfully to society. It underscores the profound responsibility they hold as mediators of reality and advocates for truth.[NEXT<\/strong> – Six Principles News]<\/b><\/p>\n

        Six Principles News<\/b><\/p>\n

        The US-based Radio Television Digital News Foundation provides six principles which underpin news and information:<\/p>\n

          \n
        1. Free expression is the foundation \u2014 the cornerstone \u2014 of democracy. Unlike in the UK and many other countries the US Constitution provides freedom of expression as inalienable rights\u00a0 to protect the foundation of journalism to ‘accurately, thoroughly and completely inform their communities’, to promote more effective and active citizens.\u00a0 This enables citizens to freely share information needed to empower themselves, to make enlightened decisions, to express disagreements and\u00a0 to make sound choices about what leaders to elect, take responsibility for the welfare of their communities and respect the rights of people with different viewpoints and beliefs.<\/li>\n
        2. Discerning fact from opinion is a basic skill and obligation. It is incumbent upon journalists to inform citizens by reporting of information to enable them to determine the difference between authentic news reports and false ‘news’ (facts and fiction) and to correctly perceive what columns, commentary, editorials, letters to the editor, advertising, advocacy ads and advocacy are produced by whom. They should be proficient in evaluating what they receive and verify what they create.<\/li>\n
        3. When the process of gathering and reporting is transparent, news and information are more meaningful, trusted and credible. Journalists should refrain from indulging in biased, distorted and paid news. They should clearly identify issues and provide objective reporting which ensures journalistic independence and integrity. News consumers should be able to trust their journalistic sources for correct information and news.<\/li>\n
        4. Effective communication of news and information requires synthesis of multiple sources into meaningful context and comprehension of its impact. Journalists must check news content and information to enable audiences to make meaningful use of it, in context, with a minimum need for clarification. Journalists must get it right and must present news in a relevant, engaging manner without sensationalism, speculation and bias. Citizens should be trained to expect credible and reliable information sources.<\/li>\n
        5. Information requires verification to be effective. Journalists must report and present information in coherent, clear, meaningful and relevant manner. They should interrogate sources without advocacy or disengagement.<\/li>\n
        6. Information in today\u2019s society must empower forums to give voice to citizens and to monitor the free flow of information. Even though journalists must reflect their society, they must be ready to challenge its values and preconceptions. They should report news from all stakeholders in pursuit of an inclusion policy by offering a platform to those who are traditionally unheard. Although they are the watchdog for society they should also be catalytic to change. (The Radio Television Digital News Foundation).<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

          In 1776 Adam Smith in his book ‘The Rationality Choice Theory’ introduced an invaluable concept which is critical in today’s world. He argued that in fulfilment of their social responsibility journalists and the media are bound to provide news and information, which are scrutinised and factually correct which is indispensable to enable news consumers to make rational and informed decisions and sound judgements.<\/p>\n

          Herbert Simon states that those who reject the assumption of perfect rationality argue that rational choice is conditional upon the availability and full access to the information for making the most rational decision every time.<\/p>\n

          Adam Smith argues from an economic perspective that the impact of incomplete, inadequate, uncontextualised and tendentious news resonates with one of the four types of bias groups known as ‘Less News and Information’ as cited in the set of about 200 cognitive biases. This is insufficient for news users to fully comprehend the total picture, it distorts reality and reliance upon it results in judgement impairment leading to biased action and wrong decisions.<\/p>\n

          A common sensible approach is to apply the theory of evidentialism by Clifford’s principles: “It is wrong always, everywhere, and for anyone to believe anything on insufficient evidence\u201d because it tends to lead to wrong or distorted decisions.<\/p>\n

          Daniel Jackson emphasised the “weighty responsibility of journalists in verifying claims of truth.” He contended that aside from the prevalence of fake news, political journalism encompasses four other concerning factors that must be acknowledged: “an excessive focus on the theatrical aspects of politics, an inherent skepticism towards politicians, an inadequate framework for addressing issues where the evidence is unbalanced, and a growing mistrust of traditional media fueled by populist figures.”<\/p>\n

          Adam Smith’s Theory of Rationality argues that people are not always able to obtain all the information they would need to make the best possible decision. Smith\u2019s point is echoed by Simon who argues that knowledge of all alternatives, or all consequences that follow from each alternative, is realistically impossible for most decisions that humans make. Rational choice theory posits that individuals use a logical, cost-benefit analysis process to make decisions, rather than randomly selecting options.<\/p>\n

          Katz and Blumler (1974), User and Gratification Theory explains that audiences tend to choose media texts which provide them information, entertainment and knowledge that are also influenced by several factors; normative functions of the media and cognitive bias.<\/p>\n

          The deluge of news and information has rendered the standard economic theory of rational expectations ineffective where rational inattention assumes that individuals no longer act rationally but make decisions out of personal interests. Rational expectations tenet, which assumes people acting on full information quickly process all freely available information,\u00a0 has been undermined by the rational inattention theory. RI states that despite full and available information people don’t act quickly, absorb it all and translate it into decisions. RI is based on a simple observation that attention is a scarce resource and, as such, it must be budgeted wisely. (Christopher A. Sims, 2006) RI theory states people choose to pay more attention to more important things. (Ma\u0107kowiak. Bartosz et al, 2021)<\/p>\n

          However, in reality, humans are not always rational in their decision-making. They are normally\u00a0 influenced by cognitive biases, which are intrinsic systematic errors in thinking that affect their judgments and decisions. This explains why consumers do not act rationally anymore. Research supports the assertion that younger audiences have different attitudes towards news than older groups. A research by the Reuters Institute for the study of Journalism found that younger people are primarily driven by progress and enjoyment in their lives, and this translates into what they look for in news (Newman, Fletcher, & Kalogeropoulos, 2019). The research also found that traditional news media no longer seems as relevant or dominant to younger audiences when it comes to news content.<\/p>\n

          The RI theory operates on the premise that individuals cannot process all available information; rather, they must selectively attend to certain pieces of information. Imperfect information has formed the basis of several critical findings in economics. Despite the abundance of available information due to advancements in technology, we have the ability to assimilate only a fraction of it.<\/p>\n

          Consequently, the type of imperfect information we possess and use to make decisions is primarily determined by the information which we choose to direct our attention to. These choices are influenced by prevailing economic conditions, leading to behaviour that exhibits several deviations from conventional models that are empirically validated.<\/p>\n

          Cognitive biases can lead consumers to make decisions that are not in their best interest. The endowment effect is a bias in which people value something more if they own it, which can lead them to overvalue their possessions and not be willing to sell them even if it’s in their best interest. Similarly, confirmation bias is a tendency to seek out information that confirms one’s existing beliefs, leading consumers to ignore information that contradicts their views.<\/p>\n

          Moreover, emotions also play a role in decision-making. People are often motivated by fear, greed, and the desire for social status, which results in irrational decisions. People often rely on heuristics, or mental shortcuts, to make decisions quickly, leading to errors in judgement.<\/p>\n

          These cognitive biases and emotional influences have an impact on the behaviour of consumers. They may make impulsive purchases or fall victim to advertising or marketing ploys that play on their biases and emotions. They are commonly prone to seven most common types of cognitive distortions on a daily basis: (a) selective abstraction<\/b> – having negative aspects of experiences in a selective way, (b) overgeneralisation<\/b> – belief that in future negative outcome will ensue in similar situations), (c) catastrophisation<\/b> – believing that the worst is most likely to happen, (d) personalisation<\/b> – tending to attribute the cause of external events to oneself, (e) temporal causality <\/b>or predicting without sufficient evidence – holding a belief that in a negative that has happened in the past may occur again, (f) self-reference<\/b> – feeling that one is at the centre of everyone\u2019s attention, and (g) dichotomous thinking<\/b> – believing in a binary thinking mode either positive or negative one will happen. (Beck, Rush, Shaw, and Emery.1979) & (Maharishi Mahesh Yogi).<\/p>\n

          As early as 1949 Orwell predicted the repercussions of digital abundance. Orwell feared those who would deprive us of information.. The narratives centred around Covid-19 forming into binary polemic dispute and over the UK referendum to remain or stay in the EU fulfilled the prophecy of George Orwell’s in 1984.\u00a0 He expressed concern that the truth would be concealed from us\u00a0 whereas Huxley feared the truth would be drowned in a sea of irrelevance. (Andrew Wilson, 4.5.2012)<\/p>\n

          The most effective strategy used now to deny or deprive news to unauthorised people is the current “locked platforms” about social media companies making their data inaccessible to researchers, journalists, and non-governmental organisations. This has caused concern for governments regarding “dark political posts” and untraceable political ads. In response, the study has created a political ad archive tool. It is important for social media companies to make their data available for research, monitoring and archiving purposes. The government also has a role to play by consulting with the mentioned groups and taking a regulatory and facilitating approach.<\/p>\n

          News or editorial content creators, such as journalists or writers may have more information than news consumers about the stories they report on. By corollary the news content may not paint the full picture for being biased. For example, a news outlet may selectively report certain facts to support a particular political agenda, while omitting other relevant information that would provide a more balanced view of the situation. [NEXT –<\/p>\n

          Customisation for Critical Media Literacy and Bias Awareness<\/b>]<\/h3>\n

          <\/p>\n

          Customisation for Critical Media Literacy and Bias Awareness<\/b><\/h3>\n

          Each video includes epistemic scaffolding techniques<\/b> to encourage reflection and action:<\/p>\n

            \n
          1. Self-awareness Prompts: Ask viewers to reflect on their biases or habits.<\/li>\n
          2. Practical Skills: Demonstrate tools and workflows that empower the audience.<\/li>\n
          3. Case Studies: Use real-world examples to illustrate points.<\/li>\n
          4. Calls to Action: Encourage active participation, like verifying content or diversifying their news sources.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

            Would you like to adapt these scripts to specific examples or tools, or proceed to create one of these videos?<\/p>\n

            Politicians used the media as a dominant tool to propagate their ideologies. People in power are driven by self-interests to garner public support with impassioned and rhetorical pleas to pursue their hidden agenda. Citizens who are critical news consumers are in a minority. News media are informed from a number of perspectives which determine its role and media policy: (1) organisational, (2) cultural, (3) economic, (4) programming, (5) financial, (6) regulatory, (7) technological and (8) artificial intelligence.<\/p>\n

            Epistemic Solutions – Critical Media Literacy (CML)<\/b><\/h3>\n

            (A)<\/b> Critical Media Literacy<\/b> – it enhances students’ ability to:<\/p>\n

              \n
            1. Differentiate Fact from Fiction<\/b>: By developing the skills to assess credibility, authenticity, and reliability of information, students can discern truth from manipulated narratives.<\/li>\n
            2. Foster Epistemic Virtues<\/b>: Encourages intellectual humility, curiosity, and fairness, which are essential for a balanced understanding of knowledge and reducing cognitive biases.<\/li>\n
            3. Develop Metacognition<\/b>: Promotes awareness of one\u2019s thought processes, enabling reflection on how information is consumed, interpreted, and applied.<\/li>\n
            4. Combat Epistemic Injustice<\/b>: Enables marginalized voices to be recognized and understood, fostering equity in the interpretation and dissemination of knowledge.<\/li>\n
            5. Promote Informed Citizenship<\/b>: Encourages engagement with diverse perspectives, empowering students to make sound decisions and participate meaningfully in democratic processes.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

              (B) CML Skills: Access, Analyse, Evaluate, Create, and Participate<\/b><\/p>\n

                \n
              1. Access<\/b>: Ability (1) to locate and retrieve diverse media content across platforms, ensuring inclusivity and exposure to multiple viewpoints, (2) Skills in navigating search engines, databases, and social media algorithms.<\/li>\n
              2. Analyse<\/b>: Identifying media structures, symbols, narratives, and embedded ideologies and (2) understanding how media messages shape perceptions of reality.<\/li>\n
              3. Evaluate<\/b>: Assessing the validity, credibility, and bias of sources and content and Distinguishing between primary and secondary sources, fact vs. opinion, and evidence-based arguments vs. fallacies.<\/li>\n
              4. Create<\/b>:\u00a0 Producing content that reflects ethical standards, accuracy, and creativity and Engaging in storytelling, visual communication, and digital design responsibly.<\/li>\n
              5. Participate<\/b>: Actively engaging in conversations, debates, and campaigns using media to advocate for causes and (2) Leveraging social media platforms to collaborate and mobilise for change.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

                (C) Empowering Students to Resist Mental Gravity<\/b><\/p>\n

                  \n
                1. Overcoming Cognitive Overload<\/b>:
                  \nCML trains students to prioritise essential information amidst the flood of media, avoiding paralysis by overconsumption.<\/li>\n
                2. Mitigating Manipulation<\/b>:
                  \nBy understanding the media’s persuasive techniques, students can resist emotional appeals, propaganda, and misinformation.<\/li>\n
                3. Enhancing Resilience<\/b>:
                  \nCML fosters critical thinking, enabling students to maintain clarity in decision-making under pressure or conflict.<\/li>\n
                4. Balancing Emotional Reactions<\/b>:
                  \nAnalyzing media rationally reduces impulsive reactions, fostering measured responses in the face of polarizing content.<\/b><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

                  (D) Training Critical Disposition and Developing an Inquiring Mind<\/b><\/h4>\n
                    \n
                  1. Promoting Critical Thinking<\/b>: Encourages skepticism toward unverified claims, cultivating a habit of questioning and verifying information.\u00a0 Teaches logical reasoning and evidence-based analysis.<\/li>\n
                  2. Nurturing Intellectual Curiosity<\/b>: Fosters a lifelong learning mindset, where students continually seek to expand their understanding of complex topics.<\/li>\n
                  3. Building Analytical Frameworks<\/b>: Equips students with tools like SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats) analysis and discourse evaluation to dissect issues comprehensively.<\/li>\n
                  4. Addressing the Post-Truth Era Challenges<\/b>: Develops resistance to echo chambers, filter bubbles, and confirmation bias by exposing students to diverse and conflicting viewpoints.\u00a0 Strengthens the ability to understand and navigate algorithms driving content in the digital age.<\/li>\n
                  5. Encouraging Ethical Engagement<\/b>: Develops moral responsibility in creating and sharing content, emphasizing transparency, objectivity, and contextuality in communication.<\/li>\n
                  6. Integration in Education:<\/b> By embedding CML in education, students not only gain practical media skills but also transform into empowered, thoughtful individuals capable of navigating the complexities of the digital world and contributing constructively to society. This equips them with the intellectual tools needed to thrive in a rapidly evolving media landscape.[NEXT – Critical Media Literacy as a Path to Enlightenment<\/b> ]<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

                    <\/p>\n

                    Critical Media Literacy as a Path to Enlightenment<\/b><\/p>\n

                    Critical media literacy can serve as a bridge to epistemic enlightenment by:<\/p>\n

                      \n
                    1. Reinforcing the Value of Truth:<\/b> Encouraging active verification of information rather than passive consumption.<\/li>\n
                    2. Empowering Critical Thinkers:<\/b> Equipping individuals to challenge misinformation and resist manipulative tactics.<\/li>\n
                    3. Fostering Collaborative Knowledge Creation:<\/b> Promoting a participatory approach to journalism that values diverse contributions.<\/li>\n
                    4. Addressing Ethical Dimensions:<\/b> Exploring the moral implications of content creation and consumption in the digital age.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

                      The below concomitants of the post-truth era are indisputably attributable to man’s inability to defy the manipulation of their untrained minds:<\/p>\n

                        \n
                      1. Compulsive Use of Social Media<\/b>: This happens when an individual feels he\/she has the\u00a0 ‘fear of missing out.’ FOMO is understood to relate to a situation where one perceives one has lesser experiences than others. The feelings of not being able to live up to their peers’ or net users’ expectations and or certain social situations result in social anxiety symptoms, which are the second most common anxiety disorder. \u201cSocial media can definitely cause social anxiety,\u201d according to Charna Cassell.<\/li>\n
                      2. Narcissism<\/b>: This condition is the result of social anxiety syndrome. The fear of being judged by others may increase in a setting where it\u2019s easy to compare yourself with others or feel evaluated by a like or lack thereof.\u00a0 Narcissism was declared ‘narcissistic personality disorder’ (NPD) in 2017. The Internet is a narcissist\u2019s paradise.\u00a0 (Laporta, Lauren, 2009). “Narcissism levels among millennials are higher than previous generations.” (Shawn Bergman,) being judged by others may increase in a setting where it\u2019s easy to compare yourself with others or feel evaluated by a like \u2014 or lack thereof.<\/li>\n
                      3. Hedonism<\/b>: the doctrine that states pleasure or happiness is the sole or chief good in life. In comprehending the psychological factors contributing to the popularity of social media platforms Foucault (1993) describes “technologies of the self” as methods people use to modify their bodies, minds, and conduct in pursuit of an ideal state of psychological perfection. Although he mainly focused on ancient practices such as meditation and diary-keeping, the prevalence of such techniques in modern times is evident. Nowadays, these online platforms have become the preferred means for many individuals to shape and regulate their self-identities.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

                        Michel Foucault’s work on power and knowledge has also had a significant impact on the way\u00a0 journalists and media scholars think about truth-telling in contemporary journalism. Truth is not an absolute or objective concept, but rather a product of the discursive practices of those in power.\u00a0 The significance of Carpentier and Foucault’s contributions to journalism and truth-telling rely on their ability to illuminate the ways in which contemporary media practices are shaped by larger social and political forces, including neoliberalism and power relations. (Carpentier;\u00a0 Foucault. M.1972-1977)<\/p>\n

                          \n
                        1. Cyber-hedonism<\/b>: This obsession has prompted The Economist to shoot a question; will they try to change the world, or simply settle for enjoying themselves? The pursuit of pleasure from online resources has mesmerised the youth to such an extent that many families, relationships and studies have been adversely affected. For many net users from China and the US virtual life is more than real which is intriguing. In China, two-thirds of the respondents to one opinion poll agreed with the proposition that \u201cIt’s possible to have real relationships purely online,\u201d compared with one-fifth of Americans who felt the same way. (iBid)<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

                          The following excerpt from The Economist (Feb. 2009) is evidently concerning for the future generation: \u201cThere is so much evidence of the latter choice that pundits have invented a new word\u2014cyber-hedonism\u2014to describe it. To the dismay of idealists, young people in many countries seem to be giving up the political struggles of previous generations and opting instead for a sort of digital nirvana, revelling in a vast supply of movies, music, instant communication and of course, sexual opportunity. One appealing thing about cyber-hedonism is that, compared with politics, it’s less likely to attract the authorities’ attention.\u201d The Economist – International ( 7.2.2009).<\/p>\n

                            \n
                          1. <\/b> Emotional Appeals:<\/b> Emotions and personal beliefs often play a greater role in shaping public opinion than facts and evidence. Emotional appeals in political campaigning and public discourse are used to manipulate public opinion and shape public policy. Journalism has become increasingly focused on creating and perpetuating narratives that appeal to the emotions and beliefs of their audiences, rather than on objective reporting (Carpentier, 2017). The use of emotional intelligence has resurfaced as a new political device to address constituents.<\/li>\n
                          2. Polarisation of the Internet<\/b>: Polarisation and division refers to where individuals are more likely to seek out and consume information that aligns with their preexisting beliefs and values, resulting in the emergence of echo chambers and the entrenchment of opposing viewpoints.\u00a0 One of the downsides of the Internet is the recognition and monitoring of polarisation in the media landscape. The unprecedented speed of data transfer and scale has also led to an increase in the spread of false, misleading, and biased information, which has contributed to the polarisation of society.<\/li>\n
                          3. The Social Media:<\/b> SM platforms have played a significant role in the emergence of the post-truth age, as they have provided a platform for the rapid and easier sharing of content and connecting like-minded individuals. SM have been criticised for their role in spreading misinformation leading to the erosion of trust in traditional sources of information. The resulting impact on digital journalism is the rise of user participation, which can incite hate speech and trolls and become hotbeds for toxic comments, with users posting hateful and derogatory messages that can harm individuals and groups. This has led to calls for media organisations to take a more proactive role in moderating user-generated content and ensuring that their platforms are safe and welcoming for all users. [NEXT – Social Media Platforms]<\/b><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

                            <\/p>\n

                            Social Media Platforms<\/b><\/p>\n

                            Social networking sites have fundamentally altered the way individuals live. “Today, I heavily depend on social networking sites for our day-to-day activities” (Saurabh, S., & Sairam, A.S., 2013). By examining the history of traditional collection development in academic libraries, the author illustrates how YouTube fits into the long continuum of library media collections as an open-access platform (Cho, A., 2013). Google’s solution to the issue of inaccessible areas was the creation of a new YouTube portal, which allowed students to explore safely on their own. However, by blocking access to YouTube in classrooms, educators are isolating themselves from the environments where students spend significant time and engage in informal learning (Kristen Bloom & Kelly Marie Johnston, 2010). Koumi (2013) offers a useful categorization for assessing the learning value of video content, arguing that video’s power in supporting learning resides in three distinct areas: motivation and engagement, cognitive learning, and experiential learning value (Peter Tiernan, 2015).<\/p>\n

                            The participatory nature of video platforms empowers users through the multimodal format, enabling expression, civic engagement, creation of user-generated content (UGCs), and sharing of knowledge, learning, and experience. Jenkins et al. have identified four types of participatory culture: affiliations, expressions, collaborative problem-solving, and circulations. These necessitate new media literacy skills developed through collaboration and networking to address performance, simulation, appropriation, multitasking, distributed cognition, collective intelligence, judgment, transmedia navigation, networking, and negotiation (Jenkins, Purushotma, Weigel, Clinton, and Robinson, 2009). Due to its ubiquitous, collaborative, and peer-to-peer environment, the teaching profession recognizes it as a potent didactic tool for teaching and learning purposes.<\/p>\n

                            Furthermore, YouTube, as the second most popular video-oriented platform, shares its high patronage with other SM channels like WhatsApp, Facebook, X (formerly Twitter), Instagram, Telegram, and LinkedIn. WhatsApp is deemed the most crucial instant messaging application for smartphones and computers in Spain, celebrated for its chat services and authentic social networks where users converse, exchange information, photos, videos, and homework screenshots (cS\u00e1nchez-Moya & Cruz-Moya, 2015; Gim\u00e9nez & Zirpoli, 2015; C\u00e1novas et al., 2014). Offering benefits like cost, community sense, and immediacy, WhatsApp serves 1.5 billion users across 180 countries, with India being its largest market (Church & De Oliveira, 2013):<\/p>\n

                              \n
                            1. WhatsApp<\/b><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

                              WhatsApp, one of the most-used apps in the world, is patronised by 1.5 billion users in 180 countries. India is WhatsApp’s biggest market in the world. WhatsApp is beleaguered by the problems of misinformation in other large markets including India, Brazil, Indonesia, Central America and Brazil. The outcomes in India have been far more violent than elsewhere. Thirty people have been killed across the country in the past few days, after rumours spread on the app about child kidnappers on the loose and a video was circulated that purported to show a boy being snatched.<\/p>\n

                              WhatsApp has grown to be the most democratised mobile-based instant messenger and chat tool to be applied in social, institutional and educational life. It has been widely recognised for its speed and effectiveness in disseminating messages, images and videos with end-to-end encryption. Although it has been widely used for its immediacy and pervasiveness it has, nevertheless hogged international headlines for the wrong reasons in many different parts of the world. It has been predominantly used in political campaigns in the US presidential elections. In Brazil political campaigners used software to scrape handbook for citizens’ phone numbers for automatically sending them WhatsApp messages and adding them to WhatsApp groups\u2028. This environment implies the ability to understand media messages,\u00a0 discern multiple perspectives and grasp the hidden meaning of media content. Similarly, a core principle of media\u00a0 education, according NAMLE (2007), is the exploration of\u00a0 \u201crepresentations, misrepresentation and lack of representation of cultures and countries in the global community\u201d (section 4.5). The above objectives are critical learning points precisely because Web 2.0 puts students in contact with other students from a variety of social and cultural backgrounds.<\/p>\n

                                \n
                              1. Facebook<\/b><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

                                This is a Facebook world which has been widely recognised not only as distribution platforms in the news industry but also as the only platform at the heart of their SM landscape where all the interviewed outlets are publishing bespoke videos. But it does not follow that publication strategy and packaging features of successful video news do not publish on different contemporary platforms. (Judith Argila, 2017)<\/p>\n

                                SM platforms such as facebook are now a ubiquitous part of everyday life for many people during their waking hours. New media scholars posit that the participatory culture encouraged by SM gives rise to new forms of\u00a0 skills that improve learning. Scholars argue that platforms such as facebook or X allow individuals to practice new skills and ways to engage with learning processes (Greenhow, C., and Gleason, B. 2012, Greenhow, C., and Robelia, E. 2009)<\/p>\n

                                Jenkins observes that individuals now participate in online communities and engage with new technologies that encourage media creation and sharing. Today\u2019s learner does not merely read or consume content. They create information in a myriad of media channels and formats, such as status updates on Facebook, tweets on the X platform, videos on YouTube, or personal blog posts. These affordances create a participatory culture where creating, sharing, and collaborating in online networks to become vital skills for learning. Jenkins suggests that the following\u00a0 skills are essential when working in new media environments:<\/p>\n

                                Play <\/b>– capacity to problem solve, tinker, and experiment with one\u2019s surroundings<\/p>\n

                                Performance<\/b> – ability to adopt different identities to explore and learn<\/p>\n

                                Simulation<\/b> – ability to construct and interpret models to explore real-world phenomena<\/p>\n

                                Appropriation<\/b> – understanding of how to sample and remix other sources in one\u2019s own work<\/p>\n

                                Multitasking <\/b>– capability to shift attention as needed<\/p>\n

                                Distributed Cognition<\/b> – skills to effectively use information and tools to expand one\u2019s mental capacity<\/p>\n

                                Collective Intelligence<\/b> – ability to collaborate and pool knowledge effectively<\/p>\n

                                Judgement<\/b> – skills to evaluate information sources as credible and reliable<\/p>\n

                                Transmedia Navigation<\/b> – use of multiple means and platforms to follow information streams<\/p>\n

                                Networking<\/b> – ability to search for, synthesize, and share information through online networks<\/p>\n

                                Negotiation <\/b>– ability to participate in and adapt to different communities.<\/p>\n

                                Research shows that social networking sites like it provides a virtual constructivist environment conducive for students to actively participate in during the study which can supplement in-class learning. Knowledge is built by students in the constructivist method which is student-centric Hence, the study is amenable as an effective learning environment. (Toprak, A et al)<\/p>\n

                                What Can We Learn from Research Activity? Using Social Learning Analytics to Observe New Media\u00a0 Skills (The Education Foundation is a leading organisation set up to accelerate and support positive change in the British education system and beyond.)<\/p>\n

                                The aim of this section is to respond to three following questions: (1) Is there a potential educational value in using Facebook? (2) How does the educational utility of the study compare with that of other social mediums available on the Internet, such as the bulletin board system (BBS)? These subjects were questioned about their use of BBS platforms, and e-learning platforms. There were three major new findings. Firstly, 81 percent of subjects had discussed course-related problems with their peers. Secondly, in relation to the six known motives for using peer discussion of educational matters was considered to be the fourth most important in this survey. Lastly, utility does not satisfy users\u2019 occasional need to review or browse through past communication records; BBS fares much better in this regard.<\/p>\n

                                Another research found that it has the education element of using motivation and is more convenient in sharing educational resources than e-learning and Bulletin Board System (BBS). and offers immediacy of learning. (Bin-ShyanJonga et al)<\/p>\n

                                The Economist pointed out that contrary to SM’s ‘promise of a more enlightened politics, as accurate information and effortless communication helped good people drive out corruption, bigotry and lies’ it has been spreading poison rather than enlightenment. It noted that users may have seen Russian misinformation on its platform as Google\u2019s YouTube admitted carrying 1,108 Russian-linked videos and X to 36,746 accounts.<\/p>\n

                                \u201cWhatsApp profile pictures can be used by ISIS for terror activities\u201d, \u201cNew notes have a GPS chip to detect black money\u201d, \u201cUNESCO falsely declares; (1) new Rs 2,000 note best currency in the world\u201d. (2) Jana Gana Mana best national anthem\u201d, (3) PM Modi best Prime Minister\u201d, and \u201cRBI declares the Rs 10 coin invalid\u201d.\u00a0 These were some headlines that criss-crossed the digital superhighway in India. Not forgetting the following false headlines: ‘Pope backs Trump’, ‘Hillary sold weapons to ISIS’, ‘FBI Agent Suspected in Hillary Email Leaks Found Dead’ -that went viral on Facebook in the run up to the election.<\/p>\n

                                  \n
                                1. X\u00a0 (formerly twitter)<\/b><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

                                  Micro-blogging instant messenger X enhances active engagement and access to information.\u00a0 The Twiducate Platform is a popular awesome, incredibly popular free learning tool for students in K-12. \u00a0is a free social network platform for school educators to create private networks for posting assignments, sending messages etc. with other educators either outside or inside the classroom. is a free social networking tool for teachers and students. It\u2019s a social microblogging platform for educators so that they can learn outside the classroom. \u2028By using this platform educators can create their own personal workspace where they can add and collaborate with\u00a0the desired members. Along with this educators can create their private network for posting assignments and messages to students or other people with\u00a0an invitation to the class network. Being a teacher, you can monitor and administer the accounts of the students of\u00a0your\u00a0network. With features like Facebook mark and +links educators can manage their resources. For offline use, educators can export their favourite posts\u00a0and comments which\u00a0can be accessed\u00a0with a\u00a0word document .<\/p>\n

                                  Students’\u00a0 perceptions of\u00a0 X as a pedagogical tool is scanty. X feed was a positive addition to teaching\/education and provided insights in three themes: digital , educational experience and professional identity. X appeared to add value to the students\u2019 educational experience via peer-assisted learning, collaboration and connectivity. Professional identity awareness can impact students\u2019 X activity; therefore, consideration regarding the enhancement of self-confidence and active engagement within this platform is recommended. Amanda Deves et al)<\/p>\n

                                  If the press is the Fourth Estate, William Dutton of the Oxford Internet Institute termed SM as the emergence of the Fifth Estate. In a 2009 interview with Nic Newman, former BBC Future Media Controller, Dutton said \u201cwe are witnessing the emergence of powerful new voices and networks which can act independently of the traditional media. Highly networked individuals (helped by new platforms like social networking and messaging) can move across, undermine and go beyond the boundaries of existing institutions.\u201d (N.Newman, \u201cThe rise of SM and its impact on mainstream journalism\u201d)<\/p>\n

                                  Jeff Paine, managing director of the Asia Internet Coalition — whose members include Apple, Amazon, Facebook, Google, Line and LinkedIn — said in a statement the key provisions of the draft rules ‘fall short of India’s legal precedents and laws around privacy and free speech.’<\/p>\n

                                  A study by the Pew Research Center found that 64 percent of Americans believe that social media platforms mostly have a negative effect on the way news is reported. Additionally, 56 percent of respondents believe that social media platforms are not effective at separating fact from fiction. These findings underscore the need for media organisations to take a more active role in countering hate speech and misinformation on social media platforms.[NEXT – Attitudes Toward Algorithmic News Selection]<\/b><\/p>\n

                                    \n
                                  1. Attitudes Toward Algorithmic News Selection<\/b><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

                                    How Algorithms Are Changing What We Read Online !<\/b><\/p>\n

                                    Public perceptions of algorithmic news selection haven\u2019t caught up with the reality that the AI of the internet determines what’s relevant. AI has taken away our right to make our own decisions. Fears about echo chambers and filter bubbles often assume audiences are passive and uncritical consumers of information. Surveys can help assess these assumptions.\u00a0Algorithms distribute news by manipulating news stories, selecting, filtering, ranking and bundling news for consumers. Coupled with the above threats of counterfeit news, AI-powered adaptive algorithms have exacerbated the problem of identifying newsworthy content and factually-checked information ever harder.<\/p>\n

                                    Using data from the Digital News Report, this analysis explores public opinions on algorithm-driven news selection, comparing them to opinions on news selected by editors and journalists. It also examines factors influencing these views, variations across countries, and changes over time.\u00a0\u00a0 (Russell Smith.(Jan. 4, 2021) Published 11:19, Sep. 8, 2020, https:\/\/thewalrus.ca\/how-algorithms-are-changing-what-we-read-online\/)<\/p>\n

                                      \n
                                    1. Scepticism Toward Algorithmic News Selection\u00a0\u00a0<\/b><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

                                      To gauge attitudes toward algorithmic news selection, respondents were asked whether they agreed with the statement: \u201cHaving stories automatically selected for me based on what I have consumed in the past or what my friends have consumed is a good way to get news.\u201d A similarly worded question was asked about news selection by editors and journalists to provide a point of comparison.<\/p>\n

                                      The findings reveal a high level of scepticism across all forms of news selection. Only 19 percent of respondents across surveyed countries agreed that automatic selection based on what their friends consumed is a good way to receive news, while 42 percent disagreed. Slightly more respondents (30 percent) viewed automatic selection based on their past consumption positively, but an equal proportion disagreed.<\/p>\n

                                      Surprisingly, this slightly exceeds the positive views of news selection by editors and journalists, with only 27 percent agreeing that it is a good method. This widespread scepticism across all methods of news selection is referred to as “generalised scepticism” (Fletcher and Nielsen, 2018).<\/p>\n

                                      One reason for this generalised scepticism is strongly associated with people\u2019s attitudes toward all methods of news selection. This underscores the need to understand and address audience concerns in an era of evolving media consumption.<\/p>\n

                                      Individuals who believe editorial selection is a good method often feel similarly about algorithmic selection, and vice versa. While journalists, researchers, and industry professionals frequently perceive these methods as fundamentally different, audiences do not view them in such binary terms.<\/p>\n

                                      These findings highlight a nuanced landscape of public attitudes toward algorithmic news selection. While platforms may diversify news exposure, scepticism remains pervasive across all forms of news selection, whether by humans or algorithms. Recently, the focus of discussions has shifted from merely addressing the symptoms of journalism’s so-called crisis to exploring deeper issues in digital journalism, particularly the evolving nature of journalism itself (Broersma & Peters, 2013, p. 2). This shift has given rise to what can be termed a “fourth wave” of digital journalism research. Building on earlier normative, empirical, and constructivist approaches (Domingo, 2008), this wave seeks to reimagine the field beyond traditional journalistic institutions and frameworks. It delves into concepts such as the “news ecosystem” (Anderson, 2010), the “news landscape” (Peters & Broersma, 2013), and emerging forms like “ambient journalism” (Hermida, 2010) and “networked journalism” (Heinrich, 2011; Russell, 2013), largely shaped by practices rooted in social media.<\/p>\n

                                      As the number of social media users rises so does the menace from the insidious content, which is masquerading as news and information and wreaking havoc on people’s lives which overspills onto society. This vitiates journalism and erodes citizens’ trust in news.<\/p>\n

                                      Consequently, making them prejudiced against traditional or mainstream news that drives them to abandon it for the infamous social media platforms, a fertile ground for\u00a0 dis\/mis\/mal-information.<\/p>\n

                                        \n
                                      1. Citizen Journalism<\/b><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

                                        The gathering and reporting of news by people who are not trained as professional journalists.(Hermans, L., Vergeer, M.and D’Haenens, L. 2009)<\/p>\n

                                        The integration of citizen journalism into mainstream media as a hotly contested issue, has instigated a polemical disorder in both the academia and the digitally transformed media ecology. This phenomenon raises critical, ethical and practical dilemmas for professional journalists and citizen journalists, highlighting both the merits and demerits of a potential partnership or interplay.<\/p>\n

                                        Pros and Cons of Cultivating a Working Relationship with News Influencers<\/b><\/p>\n

                                        Pros:<\/b><\/h4>\n
                                          \n
                                        1. Expanded Reach and Engagement: <\/b>Collaborating with news influencers allows journalists and media outlets to tap into segmented, loyal audiences that traditional platforms might not reach. Influencers excel at relatability and can help amplify stories to new demographics.<\/li>\n
                                        2. Enhanced Relatability and Trust: <\/b>Influencers build personal connections with their audiences, which can make the content shared by journalists more approachable and trustworthy when filtered through these channels.<\/li>\n
                                        3. Opportunities for Collaboration: <\/b>Influencers often use storytelling techniques that are informal and digestible, providing journalists with insights into new formats that resonate in a fast-paced, attention-scarce media environment.<\/li>\n
                                        4. Combating Misinformation: <\/b>Partnering with credible influencers can help journalists inject fact-checked, accurate information into the influencer ecosystem, counteracting the spread of misinformation on these platforms.<\/li>\n
                                        5. Cross-Promotion of Content: <\/b>Engaging with influencers can extend a story’s lifespan and reach through podcasts, newsletters, TikToks, and other emerging platforms, giving stories second and third waves of visibility.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

                                          Cons:<\/b><\/h4>\n
                                            \n
                                          1. Lack of Editorial Standards: <\/b>News influencers are not bound by traditional journalistic ethics, which can lead to the misrepresentation or sensationalising of shared stories, potentially undermining credibility.<\/li>\n
                                          2. b<\/b>. Risk of Diluting Journalistic Identity: <\/b>Adopting influencer-style tactics, such as personal branding or overly casual presentation, might blur the lines between credible journalism and entertainment, eroding the perceived authority of traditional media.<\/li>\n
                                          3. Overdependence on Secondary Sources: <\/b>Relying too heavily on influencers for distribution risks diminishing the autonomy of journalists, as influencers may prioritise their own angles or agendas over journalistic integrity.<\/li>\n
                                          4. Potential Conflicts of Interest: <\/b>Partnerships with influencers could expose journalists to accusations of bias or favoritism, especially if the influencers are perceived as ideologically driven or unbalanced in their views.<\/li>\n
                                          5. Misinformation and Reputation Damage: <\/b>Collaborations with influencers who later spread misinformation or engage in unethical practices could harm the reputation of the partnering journalist or media organisation.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

                                            While news influencers present challenges, cultivating a working relationship with them offers significant opportunities to adapt journalism to the post-truth, digitally convergent era. By leveraging their storytelling skills while maintaining journalistic ethics, reporters can amplify their reach and relevance. However, these collaborations require clear boundaries to ensure the credibility and autonomy of journalism are not compromised.<\/p>\n

                                            This shift is not a threat but a call to evolve, ensuring that the foundational values of journalism remain vital in a fragmented and rapidly changing media landscape.<\/p>\n

                                              \n
                                            1. Expanded Reach and Engagement: <\/b>Collaboration allows journalists and media outlets to tap into segmented, loyal audiences that traditional platforms might not reach. Influencers excel at relatability and can help amplify stories to new demographics:<\/li>\n
                                            2. Enhanced Relatability and Trust: <\/b>Influencers build personal connections with their audiences, which can make the content shared by journalists more approachable and trustworthy when filtered through these channels.<\/li>\n
                                            3. Opportunities for Collaboration: <\/b>Influencers often use storytelling techniques that are informal and digestible, providing journalists with insights into new formats that resonate in a fast-paced, attention-scarce media environment.<\/li>\n
                                            4. Combating Misinformation: <\/b>Partnering with credible influencers can help journalists inject fact-checked, accurate information into the influencer ecosystem, counteracting the spread of misinformation on these platforms.<\/li>\n
                                            5. Cross-Promotion of Content: <\/b>Engaging with influencers can extend a story’s lifespan and reach through podcasts, newsletters, TikToks, and other emerging platforms, giving stories second and third waves of visibility.<\/li>\n
                                            6. Demerits and Ethical Concerns: <\/b>The reliance on citizen-generated content exposes individuals to physical, psychological, and legal risks, often without adequate protection or compensation from media organisations. Many citizen journalists lack the training, safety gear, or legal awareness necessary for responsible reporting. Furthermore, their content may conflict with ethical standards related to privacy, accuracy, and objectivity. The psychological toll on both citizen journalists and media staff consuming distressing content is another significant concern. [NEXT<\/strong> –Journalism Training Program for Citizen Journalists.<\/b><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

                                              <\/p>\n

                                              Journalism Training Program for Citizen Journalists<\/b><\/h3>\n

                                              A comprehensive training program combines theoretical understanding and practical skills to equip citizen journalists with the tools and knowledge to responsibly gather, report, and disseminate news. The program emphasises ethical practices, critical thinking, media literacy, and technical proficiency.<\/p>\n

                                              Part 1: Theoretical Module<\/b><\/p>\n

                                              Week 1: Introduction to Journalism<\/b><\/h4>\n
                                                \n
                                              1. Understanding Journalism<\/b>\n