{"id":883,"date":"2025-09-04T07:49:46","date_gmt":"2025-09-04T07:49:46","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/medialiteracy360.org\/?page_id=883"},"modified":"2025-09-05T13:46:59","modified_gmt":"2025-09-05T13:46:59","slug":"cml-course-ch-8","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/medialiteracy360.org\/?page_id=883","title":{"rendered":"CML Course Ch. 8"},"content":{"rendered":"

Chapter 8<\/b><\/a><\/h4>\n

The Role of Critical Media Literacy and Public Service Media<\/b><\/p>\n

We are approaching a new age of synthesis. Knowledge cannot be merely a degree or a skill… it demands a broader vision, capabilities in critical thinking and logical deduction without which we cannot have constructive progress. – Li Ka-shing<\/i><\/p>\n

Trainee and professional journalists owe it to themselves and to society to take a critical approach to understanding the role of Artificial Intelligence (AI) which has emerged to redefine and enunciate journalism. AI is increasingly influencing the way information is created, managed, and consumed. Here is a summary of key insights and recommendations from a symposium on AI’s role in the news media, highlighting its benefits, challenges, and the steps needed for responsible integration.<\/p>\n

Key Findings of The Symposium<\/b><\/p>\n

    \n
  • AI\u2019s Hidden Influence<\/b>
    \nAI systems play a significant but often unnoticed role in shaping the media landscape. They filter, curate, rank, and moderate content on platforms and search engines. News organisations increasingly rely on AI for tasks like content creation, editing, and distribution.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
      \n
    • Efficiency vs. Complexity<\/b>
      \nWhile AI promises to make journalism more efficient, this is not guaranteed. Implementing AI systems requires significant resources, and AI-generated content often demands extra editing and supervision. Efficiency gains depend on the specific tasks and contexts.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n

      What is the Definition of Critical Media Literacy?<\/b><\/p>\n

      A commonly cited definition of \u201cmedia literacy\u201d was created at the 1992 Aspen Media Leadership Institute: Media literacy refers to the ability to access, analyse, evaluate, create content and participate in the media in a variety of forms.<\/p>\n

      As outlined below,\u00a0critical media (which is at the root of critical media project\u2019s mission) asks us to also critically interrogate the power media has in shaping our lives, values, and experiences, while opening up the possibility to critically create new narratives, representations, and structures.<\/p>\n

      ML now adopts this broader definition: Media Literacy Education is a practice in the 21st century. It gives a structure to interact with messages dimensioned from paper to video, the internet and so on. Media literacy education helps to understand the functioning of the media pluralism in the society as well as the core capabilities of questioning and assertion which are needed of any member of democracy. (Thoman, E., & Jolls, T. 2005)\u00a0 [NEXT – What Critical Media Literacy is NOT?]<\/strong><\/p>\n

      What Critical Media Literacy is NOT!<\/b><\/p>\n

      The following is a list of ideas to help explore and understand how media literacy is different from other literacies and what are some of the basic elements of a more comprehensive media education.<\/p>\n

      Media ‘bashing’ is NOT media literacy, however media literacy sometimes involves criticising the media.<\/p>\n

      Merely producing media is NOT media literacy, although media literacy should include media production.<\/p>\n

      Just teaching with videos or other mediated content is NOT media literacy; one must also teach about media.<\/p>\n

      Simply looking for political agendas, stereotypes or misrepresentations is NOT media literacy; there should also be an exploration of the systems making those representations appear “normal.”<\/p>\n

      Looking at a media message or a mediated experience from just one perspective is NOT media literacy because media should be examined from multiple positions.<\/p>\n

      CML is a Responsive Strategy<\/b><\/p>\n

      CML is a responsive strategy to ‘a literacy crisis, especially in regard to the diversity of media forums which mediate our everyday lives.’ (Rhonda Hammer, 2011). News and information as well as discourses are being rechannelled in ‘a media saturated, technologically dependent, and globally connected world’ (D. Kellner and Jeff Share) for 360-degree multi-platform.\u00a0 To address this problem, it is essential to incorporate CML in education as a means of combating the scourge of disinformation. CML in our conception is tied to the project of radical democracy and concerned with developing skills that will enhance democratisation and participation. (ibid). The transformative media ecosystem seeks the Socratic method or Chanakya’s scientific inquiry for identifying counterfeit news and false news. Socratic questioning is one of the most powerful methods to promote CT through discussion from questioning …..’ (Paul, 1993)<\/p>\n

      ML encompasses the following literacies: advertising, algorithm, civic, cybersecurity, cultural,\u00a0 computer, data, digital, environmental, financial, health, information, propaganda, news, social media, spiritual, audio and visual. The three-decade old concept of media has been outstripped by contemporary developments in neuroscience and discoveries in our cosmos. Today’s digitalisation is a paradigm shift which calls for a revised response to chaotic upsurge of omni-directional flow of multimedia content without being scrutinised with a critical lens.<\/p>\n

      This is a type of inquiring literacy that seeks to find the information source of a media message as well as the purpose of the message a media product seeks to convey in society.It seeks to create citizens who are well-informed and active, self-thinking and opinion forming, who are able to explore the media environment and make educated conclusions based on all types of information. (Buckingham, D. 2003)<\/p>\n

      Nevertheless, in light of the digital age-focused approach a stronger definition is now required in order to contextualize media literacy in relation to the media education of students in the 21st century.\u00a0 [NEXT –<\/strong> Additional Definitions<\/b>]<\/p>\n

      Additional Definitions<\/b><\/p>\n

      ML are underscored by the above defined common repertoire of competences. Media education, in this scenario, is the pedagogic equivalent of a tetanus shot. (Bazalgette, 1997). These cognitive skills mainly relate to four key facets of the mass media phenomenon: (a) media industries, (b) media messages, (c) media audiences, and (d) media effects.\u00a0 Youngbauer, (2013) argues that for citizens to understand media messages and the influence of those texts they must use a historical, empirical, interpretive, and critical framework.\u00a0 (Vincent W. Youngbauer, 2013).\u00a0 \u200b\u200b<\/p>\n

      ML also uses a political economy approach to analysing and understanding the power structures that shape media representations and the ways in which audiences work to make meaning through dominant, oppositional and negotiated readings of media. (Kellner, Share, Douglas, Jeff (2007). ML approach dwells on \u201ccultivating skills in analysing media codes and conventions, abilities to criticise stereotypes, dominant values, and ideologies, and competencies to interpret the multiple meanings and messages generated by media texts\u201d (Kellner & Share, 2005).<\/p>\n

      ML acutely falls short in dealing with the infodemic of counterfeit news and information for \u2018a 21st century approach to media education. Propaganda has infested all types of media from print to video to the Internet which prompts for the role of the media in society as well as essential skills of inquiry and self-expression necessary for citizens of a democracy,’ (CML; Uysal, 2015). It is pivotal in debating and understanding media literacy issues.<\/p>\n

      ‘Media literacy has survived through the years largely as a grass-roots movement which, slowly but surely, has developed around the world.’ (cited in Walkosz, Jolls and Sund 2008). But the question of survival is evident in Sambook’s observation, ‘Issues of truth, trust, bias, partisanship, and verification have been raised since the first steps in public communication. In today\u2019s environment of democratised mass digital media they are as important as ever.’ (Richard Sambrook, July 2012). A recent assurance seals the indispensability of media literacy despite the advent of digital transformation of the news media. ‘New media does not change the essence of what media literacy is, nor does it affect its ongoing importance in society.’ (T. Jolls & C. Wilson)<\/p>\n

      Media Literacy is not new as it has been a part of education for more than 40 years in most developed countries (Heins & et al.,Cho 2003). Media education was invented in the U.S. by a visionary teacher called John Culkin, (1928-1993). He initiated an explicit media education curriculum in schools which was tasked to create a media-literate population. In 1964 he wrote, ‘The attainment of ML involves more than mere warnings about the effects of the mass media and more even than constant exposure to the better offerings of these media.’<\/p>\n

      The term ‘media literacy’ is polysemous because media paradigmatic phases make it a moving target. The initial benchmark description of media literacy was given as the ability to access, analyse, evaluate, and create messages in a variety of forms by the Centre for Media Literacy and Aufderheide & Frost, (1993) was augmented in 2007 by the European Commission’s definition\u00a0 \u201cthe power of images, sounds and messages which we are now being confronted with on a daily basis and are an important part of our contemporary culture, as well as to communicate competently in media available on a personal basis.<\/p>\n

      With the advent of digital transformation of the economy, CM evolved as critical media literacy (CML), which relates to all media, including television and film, radio and recorded music, print media, the Internet and other new digital communication technologies.\u201d \u00a0 Being a multidisciplinary perspective ML also covers other non-news related media. It applies to individuals in their triple roles as a consumer, producer and citizen. The wide ranging media examples include films, television shows, newspaper articles, websites and blogs, songs and music videos, SM, scientific journals, news magazines hoarding, bill-boards, signages etc. Media also include physician prescriptions, tickets for air travel, bus, train, and theatre, contracts, sale deeds and online signing up of terms and conditions, ecommerce stores; Amazon, Flipkart, eBay;\u00a0 search engines; Google, DuckDuckGo; email service; Gmail and SM platform accounts. [NEXT –<\/strong> The Purpose of Critical Media Literacy]<\/b><\/p>\n

      The Purpose of Critical Media Literacy<\/b><\/p>\n

      Renee Hobbs, the media literacy movement is characterised by seven great debates, one of which concerns the critical educational objective of the movement. Some participants in the movement argue that the goal should be to reverse young people’s dependence on media messages and instead encourage an interest in alternative media arts (Hobbs, n.d.). Others, however, understand mass media consumption to be a normal part of childhood and adolescence and do not see it as a problem in need of reversal (Hobbs, n.d.).<\/p>\n

      The main purpose of critical pedagogy is to impart to learners the skills for a self-managed life which are conditional upon three goals of media education: (a) self-reflection in order to \u2018know thyself\u2019, (b)\u00a0 \u2018critical\u2019 pedagogy which makes students aware what militate against them and shapes their consciousness and (c) the conditions for producing a new life, a new set of arrangements in transforming nature and themselves. (Aronowitz, 2009, p. ix; Brazil in the 1970s). Freire, P. 1996, 1970)<\/p>\n

      CML deals with critical analysis of media, structure and its effects on society. It seeks to empower individuals to be an active audience and equipped with interrogative aptitude to become informed media consumers, and to understand the ways in which media can shape public discourse and influence public opinion. Darrell West, Vice President and Director of Governance Studies at Brookings, argues that the news media has a major role to play in combating fake news and sophisticated disinformation campaigns. West argues that the government should invest in media literacy so that voters can identify false information and stop its spread.\u00a0 CML is concerned with critically evaluating the purposes and motivations of media productions of all kinds. Examining whose voice is being heard, and equally important, whose voice is not (Ng, 2012b:1068). CML involves \u201cways of looking at written, visual, spoken, multi-media and performance texts to question and challenge the attitudes, values and beliefs that lie beneath the surface\u201d (Tasmanian Dept. of Education, 2009).<\/p>\n

      Media education also helps people to manage content and communications, and protect themselves and their families from the potential risks associated with using these services. As recently as 2012 the public had\u00a0 \u201clittle or no familiarity with the phrase \u2018media’ \u201c(BBC Trust Media\u00a0 report, 2010:11) However, it also emerged from the report that there was a demand by the public ‘for much more active promotion of these efforts, both on and off-air.’ (2010)<\/p>\n

      CML enables people to imbue the skills, knowledge and understanding they need to make full use of the opportunities presented both by traditional and by new communications services. Media literacy also helps us to manage content and communications, and protects themselves and their families from the potential risks associated with using these services.\u2028 As the governments seeks\u00a0to tackle a variety of problems of the age,\u00a0media (or digital)\u00a0 is often cited as the solution, partly because it is far less controversial than attempting to regulate the internet. (Sonia)<\/p>\n

      CML is conditional upon multiple literacies; digital, cyber-security, computer, information,\u00a0 gathered its various meanings from its affinity with a specific field. Rhetoric, speaking and listening, print\u00a0 (Hobbs & Moore, 2013), television\u00a0 (Buckingham, 1993b), visual\u00a0 (Moore & Dwyer, 1994 cited in Buckingham) information\u00a0 (Bruce, 1997 cited Buckingham) media\u00a0 (Bawden, 2001), critical\u00a0 (Lankshear & McLaren, 1993), computer, news, digital\u00a0 (Donna Alvermann & Hagood, 2000), gaming, SM\u00a0 (Caperton, 2010), internet\u00a0 and multimedia\u00a0 (Hofstetter, 2002) are some of them.\u00a0 Development of a Media\u00a0 Skills Scale\u00a0 Bahadir Eristi & Cahit Erdem. (2017). Development of a Media Skills Scale. Contemporary Educational Technology, 2017, 8(3), 249-267) [NEXT – Why Do We Need <\/strong>Critical Media Literacy?]<\/b><\/p>\n

      Why Do We Need Critical Media Literacy?<\/b><\/p>\n

      India has made commendable progress in lowering the number of illiterates but it still contends with 313 million illiterate people 59 percent of whom are women according to the 2018 figure released by Observer Research Foundation.<\/p>\n

      The nation state has released a new national education policy (NEP2020) affecting 65 percent of its population under the age of 35 and 290 million students (in schools and universities), no issue is arguably more critical for India\u2019s future than education.<\/p>\n

      In Europe the multimedia and digital media have not displaced mass media, at least not yet. It can be deduced that both the systems of mass communication and the new digital multimedia environment can co-exist within the information society. (Study on the Current Trends and Approaches to Media\u00a0 in Europe, 2010)\u00a0 This media ecology is not too dissimilar in India where despite the above social pervasiveness of digital technology its largest and fastest growing television sector is enigmatic and defiant of the global decline of broadcast television.<\/p>\n

      The resilience of traditional media (like television, the cinema and the press) against the flourishing of\u00a0 the \u2018new media\u2019 such as the internet, mobile telephony, cable and satellite TV has been noted by academic researchers like Kumar who calls for a critical evaluation of the mediasphere at all levels of public education. (Keval J. Kumar. Ud; B.K. Ravi. 2012).Television broadcast media in the country are\u00a0 expected to rise to 66.76 per cent by 2020 with its current number of\u00a0 780 million viewers likely to exceed the entire population of 745 million of the European continent, according to BARC India, a TV viewership monitoring agency. (Gaurav Laghate, 2017)<\/p>\n

      CML is a subfield of media theory, which is itself a subset of communication theory. They are related, but they are not the same. It is a broad field that studies how people communicate and how communication shapes society. It includes the Facebook of verbal and nonverbal communication, as well as the ways in which communication is mediated through technology and other channels. It is recognised that CML plays a crucial role in governance, reform agenda and makes recommendations for steps to improve governance through media literacy to assist development practitioners. Highly news literate teenagers, as determined by news media literacy assessment measures, are more internally motivated to consume news, more skeptical, and have better knowledge of current events compared to their less news literate peers.\u00a0 (Adam Maksl et al.,2015)<\/p>\n

      CML is critical in being able to navigate the complex and ever-evolving media landscape, citizens must acquire the critical abilities and necessary communicative skills to actively and meaningfully participate in the democratic public sphere, where free and equal citizens come together to discuss and debate current affairs.<\/p>\n

      The imbroglio of conflicting discourses, advice and recommendations concurrent during the peak of Covid-19 pandemic indicates the conflicting advice, news, medical reports and scientific laboratory reports created by professional and individuals deficit of CML. This presents one type of threats while the other relates to our exposure to the pandemic of malicious or misleading content on social media, multi-platform broadcast and broadband channels that have become an integral part of our lives<\/p>\n

      Critical Media Theory is a branch of communication theory that specifically studies the dynamics, matrix and undercurrents of media production, media representation, content distribution, and audience approach to content reception. Besides examining these it focuses on how media technologies and practices shape the way that people communicate and how they understand the world. [NEXT – <\/strong>Motivators of Critical Media Literacy<\/b> ]<\/p>\n

      Motivators of Critical Media Literacy<\/b><\/p>\n

      The emergence of myriads of media texts has exacerbated the complexity, enormity and intensity of digital topology. Given that it is neither realistic nor practical to regulate the overwhelming avalanche of content it becomes imperative to promote critical citizenship.<\/p>\n

      Content regulation has failed to stamp out the incursion of propaganda in digital, data, platform,\u00a0 telecommunication and technical convergence because digital disinformation and digital misinformation are universal. The impracticality of content regulation, ambivalence, reluctance, a lack of will and technological constraints in purging negative content point to a combination of skills; cognitive, CT and judicious disposition is indispensable. ‘Self-regulation is flawed whereas statutory regulation or even co-regulation of ‘the press’ is unrealistic in the age when it is no longer clear what journalism is. (Butterworth, S., 20.07.2011. The Guardian).<\/p>\n

      Alternative measures have been ruled out as they collide with the principles of freedom of expression. Likewise technological and algorithmic endeavours to impose restrictive rules have also failed. Advocates of freedom of expression maintain that content regulation has implications for free speech which should be avoided at all costs. (Buzzfeed News, 29.01.2017). In an era of false ‘news’, students must act like journalists. (Sheila Mulrooney Eldred, 22.09. 2017). Given that SM and news organisations have struggled to tackle false ‘news’ regulation seems necessary? But is it desirable?<\/p>\n

      The encounter of the menace of pernicious concomitant of the post-truth age. It is the least controversial solution in tackling a variety of problems of the age compared with attempting to regulate the internet. (Livingstone). Besides, the above intended contamination of news by design the Alliance of Media Literacy (AML) has identified eight types of inherently tendentious media content which has implications for society’s understanding of real meaning and intention of messages underlying current affairs: (1) all media are constructions – involved in representation of reality, (2) media construct reality. (3) audiences negotiate meaning in media, (4) media have commercial implications, (5) media contain ideological and value messages, (6) media have social and political implications, (7) form and content are closely related in the media and (8) each medium has a unique aesthetic form. (Tessa Jolls & C. Wilson, 2014)<\/p>\n

      The ineluctable digitalisation requires citizens to imbibe CT skills as an inoculation against media effects. The flood of unverified and unchecked content is masquerading as journalism has made it necessary for news consumers to be inducted into a regime of media literacy. Media literacy will enable news consumers to question, evaluate, decode, understand and produce messages across multimedia platforms.\u00a0 [NEXT –<\/strong> India’s Strategy For Tackling Disinformation<\/b>]<\/p>\n

      India’s Strategy For Tackling Disinformation<\/b><\/p>\n

      The fact that such disinformation fuels citizens\u2019 paranoia and causes them to take matters into their own hands in droves, is indicative of a lack of faith in the machinery to maintain law and order in the country that lacks an understanding of the consequences of participating in these activities, and an inability to find truth beyond the realm of their messaging inbox.<\/p>\n

      In summary, false news is a scourge in the digital age. Although it is important for individuals to take steps to protect themselves from disinformation and disinformation they cannot do so simply because they are not aware of how to go about it. By using reputable news sources, fact-checking information, and learning media literacy skills, individuals can work towards a safer news environment to protect their minds from being polluted.<\/p>\n

      Instead of holding WhatsApp responsible, India\u2019s education needs to tackle the underlying issues that are making its people paranoid and vulnerable to the viral spread of lies. Hell, it could even use WhatsApp to do that. (Abhimanyu Ghoshal. July 2014) India must blame itself, not WhatsApp, for its devastating lynching spree) For WhatsApp though, the scrutiny it is facing in India is quite unusual. A country known for its missed-call culture, embraced the messaging platform for its free and seamless communication service. (Sundeep Khann. Mint). India is WhatsApp\u2019s biggest market. It\u2019s also suddenly one of the company\u2019s biggest threats. About half a billion people have access to the Internet in India. Facebook has about 350 million users, WhatsApp has more than 200 million and tens of millions of X users.\u00a0 WhatsApp says it is limited in what it can do to stem the spread of harmful rumours without compromising the encrypted nature of the software.<\/p>\n

      India’s proposed legislation to regulate SM giants had provoked a backlash against what they described as ‘sweeping new rules by India. The Indian government, on the pretext of the failure of the self-regulation of SM, has initiated plans to purge harmful content of mainly YouTube, Facebook and WhatsApp. They apply their own rules about what content is unacceptable and ‘promotes false news, hate speech or extremism’ Aditya Kalra. (Jan. 11, 2019). SM giants plan push-back on India’s new regulations. Gopalakrishnan S., a joint secretary at India\u2019s IT ministry argues that the proposal is aimed at making SM safer and was not for curbing freedom of speech or imposing censorship. Facebook, WhatsApp and X would be required to remove unlawful content that affected the \u201csovereignty and integrity of India\u201d within 24 hours. Industry executives and civil rights activists argue that this measure is designed to curb freedom of speech, to suppress content inimical to the government and also an indirect censorship to help the government of Prime Minister Narendra Modi to crack down on dissent.<\/p>\n

      The Indian government remains undaunted by such opposition. ‘I don’t get bothered by the uncalled-for campaigns,’ Prasad was quoted as saying on Feb. 20. ‘We’ll be fair, we’ll be objective, but our sovereign right to frame rules and laws will always be there.’<\/p>\n

      India’s government decided to take the easy option by apportioning blame to the instant messenger. It wanted to hold WhatsApp accountable for carrying content. Although regulators want to impose responsibilities on internet companies to “proactively screen user posts and messages in order to ensure that people don\u2019t share anything ‘unlawful’ as yet no consensus has emerged. The rules are also being criticised for creating a new type of gatekeepers to judge what can be published and what can’t from the point of view of what is lawful and what is \u201cunlawful\u201d before it\u2019s ever even shared.\u00a0 Apar Gupta, the executive director of the Internet Freedom Foundation has slammed the new regulation as \u201ca sledgehammer to online free speech,’ Jayshree Bajoria, Human Rights Watch, warns \u201cWe are talking about China-style surveillance here\u201d.<\/p>\n

      The rules would force tech companies to make technical changes. Companies that don\u2019t have the technology to monitor content would need to build it (though one issue with the proposed Indian rules is that it\u2019s unclear, for now, what the punishment will be for failing to comply).\u00a0 Knowing fully well that WhatsApp’s transmission of messages are encrypted it is impracticable because it is unlikely that the company would be ready to eliminate encryption to comply with a law like this. The correlation function is not in the hands of Facebook executives, and Facebook doesn’t claim it to be so.[NEXT – The Role of Public Service Media (PSM)<\/b>]<\/strong><\/p>\n

      The Role of Public Service Media (PSM)<\/b><\/p>\n

      Broadcasters believe that public service broadcasting (PSB) evolved as public service media (PSM) significantly contributed to democracy by creating more informed citizens. The issue of universal access to information has also been raised, with the belief that countries with robust PSM have better-informed citizens compared to those relying more heavily on commercial news providers. (DCMS, 2019)<\/p>\n

      As more people \u2014 especially young people \u2014 get their news from SM, news consumers need to take on some of the roles of journalists, including vetting sources and checking facts. \u201cThe sense of urgency is growing,\u201d says Eric Newton, who teaches at the Walter Cronkite School of Journalism and Mass Communication at Arizona State University, in Phoenix. (SNExplores.org)<\/p>\n

      Journalism should be integrative of ‘new modes of public articulation\u2014beyond journalism.’ Journalism has a special role in society and its vitality and possibility in its reincarnated forms\u2019 ability ‘to collect and disseminate news that is vital to a representative democracy’ (Christoph Raetzsch, 2017)<\/p>\n

      News is indispensable to any democracy for its common and vital role in informing and educating citizens to enable them to make wise informed decisions, and in holding governments accountable for their actions. (Michael Schudson, 2008). In tandem with the incorporation of media literacy curricular education sustainable realignment of children’s mindset is contingent upon PSM, a reincarnated version of public service broadcasting (PSB). As the legacy PSM has realigned its thinking with the digital paradigm shift.<\/p>\n

      This is a situation where PSM can be a catalyst in its normative role as explained by Siebert et al (1956). Its role is paramount under the social responsibility theory in providing the most important deliberative environment, the DPS where citizens can participate in discussions, deliberations and reasoning to promote cultural, social needs, social cohesion policy and to ensure freedom of expression and pluralism of views, open and transparent world of communication with the highest standards to uphold moral integrity and maximum efficiency and trust. In turn, the success of the PSM is contingent on technological convergence.<\/p>\n

      Although the growing implications of propaganda for different media; broadcasting, radio, press is a concern for all, the EBU argues that public service broadcasters lead the frontline attack as their track record has proven during the pre-digital era.<\/p>\n

      The EBU member States are minded to promote and take measures for the development of media\u00a0 skills by Article 33a. Generally, the term ‘online disinformation’ is preferred as it is more precise and may serve to designate content which contains inaccurate information and which is presented, promoted or disseminated by one or more actors in the chain with the intention to cause harm or make a profit. The underlying motivation may be, for example, to manipulate public opinion or political processes, to damage the reputation of others or simply to make money (EBU)<\/p>\n

      The revised AVMSD requires video-sharing platforms to provide for effective media\u00a0 measures and tools and measures for the development of media\u00a0 skills. PSM can be described as radio and television having a virtual presence to reflect ‘the changing needs of how audiences consume media today, promote themselves’ (EBU – Empowering Society), implying that content is no longer the king. \u201cConvergence, digitalisation, globalisation, fragmentation and neoliberalism combined with postmodernism are in fact drivers challenging PSB and stimulating PSM\u201d.\u00a0 (Bardoel & Lowe 2007:15). The term PSM, first suggested by the Council of Europe as a technology-neutral media, is widely supported by the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) in its report titled \u201c Vision 2020′ and widely advocated in academic debates.<\/p>\n

      In our world, learning never ends. Promoting media is a PSM commitment which has an important role in exhorting people to \u201cbuild their confidence and skills and encourage audiences to move from passive consumption to active participation and constructive engagement.\u201d\u00a0 \u00a0 (BBC Charter and Agreement, 2006)<\/p>\n

      The crucial role of PSM during the Covid-19 pandemic in disseminating correct and reliable information was at the forefront in combating fake news about the coronavirus and its treatments By providing accurate information and opening platforms to scientific experts and specialists, they contribute to dispelling misinformation and promoting fact-based reporting.The following points emphasise the significance of PSM in spreading accurate news and information:<\/p>\n

        \n
      • Increased Audience Confidence:<\/b> Public service media from G-7 countries experienced a surge in audience numbers during the pandemic, indicating that people trust them for delivering reliable and independent information. This surge is seen as a vote of confidence in the media’s commitment to providing trustworthy content.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
          \n
        • Service to General Interest and Democratic Values:<\/b> The PSM acted responsibly in the global health crisis as demonstrated by their dedication to serving the general interest, democratic values, and freedom of expression. The purpose was to unite people during challenging times and emphasise the importance of these values in a global context.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
            \n
          • Multilingual Communication Platforms:<\/b> PSM operates across multiple communication platforms and in various languages, reaching audiences on all continents. This diverse approach ensures that information about the pandemic is accessible to people in their native languages, contributing to a more widespread understanding.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
              \n
            • Global Cooperation:<\/b> The statement underscores the collaborative efforts of international public service media in sharing content reported in many languages by local correspondents. This collaboration helps in reaching a global audience and contributes to a unified response to the pandemic.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
                \n
              • Highlighting Humanist Values of Solidarity:<\/b> The PSM have been actively involved in recognising and celebrating the contributions of healthcare workers, researchers, essential workers, and women during the pandemic. They have raised awareness of issues such as gender-based violence and domestic violence, demonstrating a commitment to humanist values and solidarity.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
                  \n
                • Contribution to Post-Pandemic Future:<\/b> The PSM plays a crucial role in international reflection and debate necessary for building a post-pandemic future. By contributing to discussions about the world’s functioning, social relations, the importance of public services, and access to information, they help shape the path forward.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n

                  To reconcile these priorities, it is important to recognise that ideology is intrinsic to the personal and affective experiences of texts, and digital texts provoke emotions because they reference or reflect a reality shaped by ideology that has particular meaning to the individual. Unpacking and understanding how ideology is made effective and personal could therefore become a powerful method of critique in the digital context. The individual’s personal experiences can be seen as a “portal” through which to explore the deeper ideologies that structure the reality of the digital context. [NEXT – Critical Political Economy of CML]<\/strong><\/p>\n

                  Critical Political Economy of CML<\/strong><\/p>\n

                  In the post-truth transformative media ecosystem the significance of CPE, relates to financial mechanisms, conflicts of interests between the freedom of press and economic pressures, direct political intervention and the way media industries are organised and financed which influence on news.<\/p>\n

                  Jonathan Hardy (2014) in ‘CPE of the Media’ argues that it investigates digital convergences of media, technology,\u00a0 telecommunication and media systems, media ownership, information capitalism, digital capitalism, intellectual rights, advertising literacy and culture.<\/p>\n

                  It also deals with the question of how governance arrangements affect media markets, media behaviour and content and policy raise the importance of CPE. Hardy draws on Jenkins and Hesmondhalgh to explain that the prevalence of culturalism shifted the focus of attention from media production to consumption nad located power and agency over meaning-making with textual readers and more recently digital producers (Jenkins 1992, 2006)<\/p>\n

                  CPE is a critical realist approach that investigates problems connected with political and economic organisations.. `His articles conclude that CPE is concerned with communication and power and democratic life in its broadest sense, making communication arrangements democratic and sustainable.<\/p>\n

                  CML, therefore, goes beyond analysing media content to examine the powerful corporations and organisations that create media primarily to generate profit but also end up dominating the cultural sphere. Frechette, Higdon, and Williams (2016) argue that CML “analyses how media industries reproduce sociocultural structures of power by determining who gets to tell the stories of a society, what points of view and organisation all interests will shape the constructions of these stories, and who the desired target audience is” (p. 205).<\/p>\n

                  A political economic lens allows us to understand that the commercial media industries are dominated by a small number of multinational corporations who view their audiences not as citizens in need of entertainment and information, but rather as sources of profit (Jhally & Livant, 1986).<\/p>\n

                  This is evident in statements made by media owners and executives, such as the quote from Michael Eisner mentioned above, as well as others like the founder of the largest radio chain in the US, Clear Channel Communications, who stated: “We\u2019re not in the business of providing news and information. We\u2019re not in the business of providing well-researched music. We\u2019re simply in the business of selling our customers\u2019 products” (Fortune Magazine). Similarly, after acquiring YouTube in 2008, Google CEO Eric Schmidt said: \u201cI don\u2019t think we\u2019ve quite figured out the perfect solution of how to make money, and we\u2019re working on that. That\u2019s our highest priority this year” (Schmidt, 2008). Even during the 2016 Presidential campaign, the head of CBS stated, referring to then-candidate Trump\u2019s divisive but audience-generating rhetoric: \u201cIt may not be good for America, but it\u2019s damn good for CBS” (CBS, 2016). This highlights the fact that the primary goal of these media corporations is to generate profits, rather than to inform and educate the public.<\/p>\n

                  David Hesmondhalgh in his book entitled “The Cultural Industries” in 2002 advocated the adoption of CT to be understood as how they as\u00a0 audiences are sold as a commodity by television companies to advertisers.\u00a0 He argued we should \u201cresist the more negative aspects of commodification\u201d. By corollary, culture is increasingly packaged as a product to be sold to the audience , but he was concerned the process produced \u201cunrecognised and under-rewarded paid labour\u201d.<\/p>\n

                  The term “commodification” refers to the process of turning things, services, ideas, and people into objects for sale in a capitalist economy. It also describes the ways in which activities that were previously outside the market, such as art, religion, or healthcare, are being incorporated into the capitalist system. On a broader level, “commodification” signifies the growing influence of capitalist methods of accumulation in every aspect of our lives and around the world. Under these conditions, as Karl Marx and Frederick Engels stated, “the only connection between people is their naked self-interest and callous ‘cash payment'” (Marx and Engels, 1998).<\/p>\n

                  In the 21st century, social media has become a key player in the mass communication landscape, and the commodification of culture has only accelerated. Scholars such as Adorno and Horkheimer’s analysis are still relevant today as the profit-driven nature of social media corporations has led to the manipulation of cultural products to maintain the capitalist order. Social media platforms like Facebook and X are not just a means of communication, but also a means of generating profit through targeted advertising and data collection. The commodification of culture on social media has led to the manipulation of information, the erosion of privacy, and the spread of disinformation, all of which contribute to the maintenance of the capitalist order. In this sense, a critical examination of the political economy of social media is crucial in understanding the ways in which the platforms are used to maintain ideological domination and societal power imbalances.<\/p>\n

                  Reuters.com considers realising the age of engagement with our social thrust has a very specific plan behind it. The media have to go where the audience is which is not an over-reliance and express delight in having an audience wherever it is. (Slade Sohmer) As the conversation around stories has shifted to SM the comments section is deemed as a better place for that discourse to happen. (Dan Colarusso, executive editor of Reuters.com. ‘https:\/\/X.com\/colarusso42’)<\/p>\n

                  Comment threads could be both an important source of information and a business opportunity for publishers. \u201cEverything that a reporter writes can be \u2014 often immediately \u2014 verified or checked, externally by the audience. Increasing use of comment systems has affected how news is reported. In some instances, comments have countered agenda-setting theory by guiding the news reporting process (Graham, 2013; McCluskey & Hmielowski, 2012; Santana, 2011).<\/p>\n

                  A journalist’s engagement in commenting additionally improves the quality not only of the discussion but also of original reporting (Diakopoulos & Naaman, 2011). Quality of the comments and the discourse as a whole also improves when those who post contribute frequently and repeatedly (Weber, 2013).<\/p>\n

                  Joseph Reagle explores the multifaceted nature of online comments found at the bottom of the web. He contends that these comments, whether informative or manipulative, entertaining or infuriating, can offer valuable insights into human nature and social behaviour. Reagle delves into various online communities, including Amazon reviewers, fanfiction authors, online learners, scammers, freethinkers, and mean kids, illustrating how comments serve different purposes such as informing, improving, manipulating, alienating, shaping, and perplexing individuals. He draws parallels between pre-internet forms of critique and the modern phenomenon of online comments. He also discusses the techniques of online fakery, the emotional dynamics of giving and receiving feedback, and the culture of trolls, haters, bullying, and misogyny. Reagle examines how the constant stream of social quantification through comments impacts self-esteem and well-being. Finally, Reagle highlights the puzzling nature of online comments\u2014short, asynchronous, and often context-shedding\u2014and how they provoke a range of reactions from readers, including confusion and amusement.<\/p>\n

                  The poor performance of the news media can be further explained on the basis of the well-established \u2018indexing\u2019 and \u2018manufacturing consent\u2019 models which broadly suggest that news media discourses are elite-driven and thus hegemonic (Cottle, 2006; McChesney, 2008; Robinson et al., 2010) [NEXT- <\/strong>The Role of Social Media<\/b>]<\/p>\n

                  The Role of Social Media<\/b><\/p>\n

                  When we talk about SM, a few virtual platforms leap to mind instantly; the common ones include WhatsApp, YouTube, X Instagram, Facebook, Telegramme and TikTok. Valenzuela\u00a0 reveals how political upheavals and protests have used SM. Sebasti\u00e1n Valenzuela, (2018). This is instigated through opinion expressions and activism, which is again a mere expression of one\u2019s sentiment on a particular subject. Lee, Chan, and Chen [5] finds that SM platforms, such as X, play an active role in democratic engagement. Seeking information via social network sites is a positive and significant predictor of people’s social capital and civic and political participatory behaviours, online and offline.(Homero Gil de Z\u00fa\u00f1iga, Nakwon Jung, Sebasti\u00e1n Valenzuela). That is, political engagement is both a major consequence of using SM for news as well as a key antecedent of sharing misinformation. brought about by SM \u2013 have produced a new dilemma: how to sustain a citizenry that is enthusiastically politically active, yet not spreading misinformation?<\/p>\n

                  Sebasti\u00e1n Valenzuela, Daniel Halpern, James E. Katz & Juan Pablo Miranda (2019) The Paradox of Participation Versus Misinformation: SM, Political Engagement, and the Spread of Misinformation, Digital Journalism, 7:6, 802-823, DOI: 10.1080\/21670811.2019.1623701<\/p>\n

                  The author argues that reliance on SM for news does not contribute to people\u2019s real level of political knowledge (objective knowledge), but instead only influences people\u2019s impression of being informed (subjective knowledge). Sangwon Lee et al., 2022)<\/p>\n

                  Social Media As An Emerging Source of News<\/b><\/p>\n

                  The relevance of social media platforms as a source of news is a topic of debate and has been widely researched. Social media is only the most recent \u2018truthless\u2019 media. Here is an overview of some of the key findings on the role of social media platforms as a source of news and how they challenge traditional news in the digital era, with inline citations:<\/p>\n

                  Increased use<\/b>: A large number of people use social media platforms as a source of news, especially among younger populations. A study by the Pew Research Center found that 68 per cent of US adults use social media as a source of news, with 44 percent of them saying they use it often (Perrin, A. 2019).<\/p>\n

                  Increased diversity<\/b>: Social media platforms provide access to a wide range of news sources and perspectives that may not be available through traditional news sources. A study by the Reuters Institute found that social media users are more likely to encounter news from sources that they would not have otherwise encountered (Newman, N., Fletcher et al.,2017).<\/p>\n

                  Concerns about accuracy<\/b>: While social media platforms provide access to a wide range of news sources, there is also concern about the accuracy and reliability of the information that is shared on these platforms. A study by the Knight Foundation found that 59 percent of US adults are concerned about the accuracy of the news they see on social media (Mitchell, A. et al.,2017).<\/p>\n

                  Competition with traditional news<\/b>: Social media platforms are increasingly challenging traditional news sources, especially among younger populations. A study by the Reuters Institute found that young people are less likely to rely on traditional news sources, such as television and newspapers, and are more likely to rely on social media as a source of news (Newman et al., 2017).<\/p>\n

                  These are some of the key findings on the role of social media platforms as a source of news and how they challenge traditional news in the digital era. While social media platforms provide access to a wide range of news sources and perspectives, there are also concerns about the accuracy and reliability of the information that is shared on these platforms, which highlights the need for media literacy and CT skills.<\/p>\n

                  The role of SM is increasingly changing the modality of communication, at the basic level SM is an easy way to: (a) communicate, connect and converse with friends and family, share photos and files and publish music on the blogosphere. Many people use as a marketplace for promoting their businesses or personal brands, or to foster a network for trading as borne out by several exemplary millionaires, who have harnessed the power of SM, (b) participate in debates, discussions and discourses in online communities, (c) discover and consume news and information, (d) connect with like-minded individuals around shared interests or causes and (e) enable them to voice their preferences, grievances, dislikes, suggestions or to participate in the public sphere to exercise their freedom of speech. [NEXT –<\/strong> YouTube Throttles Epistemic Knowledge<\/b>]<\/p>\n

                  YouTube Throttles Epistemic Knowledge<\/b><\/p>\n

                  The YouTube misinformation policy is implicitly arbitrary and plays the second fiddle to many governments during the pandemic. It limits the right to freedom of expression in relation to COVID-19 information, by prohibiting users from posting any information that contradicts expert consensus from local health authorities or the World Health Organisation (WHO). (YouTube, 2022).The policy restricts content that promotes prevention, diagnostic, transmission, and treatment misinformation, as well as the denial of the existence of COVID-19.<\/p>\n

                  While this policy aims to prevent the spread of false information and prevent harmful activities, it may also lead to bias against individuals or groups that hold opinions that are not in line with the views of the local health authorities or WHO.<\/p>\n

                  The policy amounts to a form of censorship, as it imposes a restriction on the type of information that can be shared on the platform. (Mortensen, 2021). Moreover, one can sense how the policy favours information from authorities over other sources, such as alternative medical treatments, religious practices, or natural remedies. (ibid). For instance, the policy prohibits content that promotes home remedies, prayer, or rituals in place of medical treatment, which could be interpreted as discouraging cultural or religious practices that do not align with the views of the authorities.<\/p>\n

                  Furthermore, the policy prohibits any claims that Hydroxychloroquine is an effective treatment for COVID-19, which has been a topic of controversy among health professionals. By doing so, the policy seems to favour the opinion of the authorities, who have expressed concerns about the use of Hydroxychloroquine, over the opinion of medical professionals who support the use of this drug for COVID-19 treatment. (Boulware et al., 2020). This could lead to bias against alternative views and limit the diversity of opinions on the platform.<\/p>\n

                  While the YouTube misinformation policy aims to prevent the spread of false information and harmful activities related to COVID-19, it may also lead to a bias against alternative views and opinions that are not in line with the views of the local health authorities or WHO. This policy could be seen as a form of censorship that limits the right to freedom of expression and diversity of opinions on the platform.<\/p>\n

                  So essentially the policy can be judged as non-epistemic as it restricts people seeking credible information because without compelling justification it is considered as a violation of the right to freedom of expression that underlies many democratic societies. The policy outlined in the YouTube seems to be designed to prevent the spread of misinformation about COVID-19, which is an important goal. However, the policy’s language and implementation could be seen as implicitly biased against certain forms of expression or viewpoints, without necessarily providing clear and compelling reasons for why those forms of expression or viewpoints are harmful or inaccurate.<\/p>\n

                  Khan, (2017) also investigated the drivers to YouTube participation and consumption. This Facebook, unearthed the intention behind YouTube user engagement that has been categorised as active participation and passive consumption, involving conducting a qualitative survey with online users who filled a survey that measured user behaviour and obtained for YouTube participation, relaxing entertainment motive was strongly linked to liking or disliking, social interaction motive strongly predicted commenting and uploading while the motive to give information was associated with sharing of videos. While this study tried to investigate the motives behind different engagement types, they offer very limited information on the emotional aspect of the users.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

                  Chapter 8 The Role of Critical Media Literacy and Public Service Media We are approaching a new age of synthesis. Knowledge cannot be merely a degree or a skill… it demands a broader vision, capabilities in critical thinking and logical deduction without which we cannot have constructive progress. – Li Ka-shing Trainee and professional journalists […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-883","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry","has-post-title","has-post-date","has-post-category","has-post-tag","has-post-comment","has-post-author",""],"yoast_head":"\nCML Course Ch. 8 - Critical Media Literacy<\/title>\n<meta name=\"robots\" content=\"noindex, follow, max-snippet:-1, max-image-preview:large, max-video-preview:-1\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:locale\" content=\"en_GB\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:type\" content=\"article\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:title\" content=\"CML Course Ch. 8 - Critical Media Literacy\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:description\" content=\"Chapter 8 The Role of Critical Media Literacy and Public Service Media We are approaching a new age of synthesis. 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